Surgeon General Project Childhoudd Obesity - 1734 Words

SURGEON GENERAL PROJECT Childhood Obesity Over the last few decades the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents has been steadily increasing in the United States drawing immediate concern for the coming generations and the overall health and well-being for society. While addressing this concern, a matter of significance has to be reviewed to undoubtedly warrant the attention of the nation and propose factors of government, community, organizational, and individual involvement. According to the Society of Behavioral Medicine, â€Å"Since 1960, overweight prevalence rates among children and adolescents have increased more than threefold. In 2003-2006, 16.3% of children and adolescents aged 2 – 19 years were at or above the 95th†¦show more content†¦This is a direct reflection of the simple equation of weight management which is calories in must meet calories out and is a direct relation to a childs weight gain. Along with these technological activities such as video games, the internet or television, there is research that supports that children are not receiving enough sleep. Now while sleeping is the most sedentary activity there is, it is said that one minute of sleep can burn more calories than staying awake. In a research article reviewed by Niya Jones MD it states, â€Å"For some people, lack of sleep can be the main problem, and a narrow focus on diet and exercise will not be enough to solve it, says Jean-Philippe Chaput, PhD, junior research scientist in the Healthy Active Living and Obesity Research Group at the Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute in Ottawa†(Stewart). Diet aggressively plays a role in the rise of obesity within children. Now although diet is a much harder predictor to use across a socioeconomic population, it is not hard to find that more childrens diets are filled with unbalanced meals, less caloric dense foods, and more foods high in fat as the tradition of at home meals has declined moving more towards fast foods and foods high of sodium. In a study done on child obesity by Cara B Ebbeling, Dorota B Pawlak, David S Ludwig it is found that, â€Å"In the late 1970s, children in the

Hip Hop Is Dead Essay - 1915 Words

Hip hop music contains more than just empty meanings; it can educate, motivate and encourage. In addition, it possesses the power to inform one about current technology and urban life. Nevertheless, since the start of the 21st century, hip hop has lost its originality by focusing on topics such as sex, money, and drugs, rather than its original roots which educated on meaningful issues such as racism, police brutality, and segregation. A good example of this would be Tupac Shakur’s song Changes. And still I see no changes, cant a brother get a little peace Its war on the streets and a war in the Middle East Instead of war on poverty They got a war on drugs so the police can bother me and I aint never did a crime I aint have to do But†¦show more content†¦For example, in â€Å"early times of hip-hop style, the fashions included personalized crew-neck sweatshirts, Converse sneakers, Kangol bucket hats, name buckles, sunglasses, oversized baggy jeans and boots by Timberland† (Samuels). In the music industry popularity and trends are a primary means of profit. Contrary to popular belief, radio formats are selected for their estimated ability to accumulate profit, rather than just to present music† (Rothenbuhler). Today’s hip hop music has a negative outlook that focuses on criminal lifestyles and hardcore rap which started with the music group NWA (Niggas with Attitude). Their albums were a success of the hardcore image, and in turn, the music indust ry capitalized on this hardcore rap. A song by NWA called Gangster states. Heres a little something bout a nigga like me never should of been let out the penitentiary Ice Cube would like to say that Im a crazy mothafucka from around the way. Since I was a youth, I smoked weed out now I’m the mutha fucka that you read about. Taking a life or two thats what the hell I do, you dont like how Im living well fuck you! This is a gang, and Im in it my man Durrell fuck you up in a minute with a right, left, right left you toothless and then you say goddamn they ruthless! Everywhere we go they say [damn!] N W As fuckin up the program and then you realize we dont care, we dont just say no, we too busy saying yeah!Show MoreRelatedEssay about Hip Hop1101 Words   |  5 PagesHip-hop is known as a culture movement. Hip-hop is a pleasing art form, formed by African-Americans and Latinos in the late seventies. Its formation derives from a young generation of African-Americans in South Bronx, New York. They created a beautiful, complimentary expression of melody, sk ill and dance from an environment of poverty. Ever since it has encouraged people from all across the world. Hip-hop is discussed as an art form and not just flowing, it typically is meant to include the fourRead MoreHip Hop Is The Best?767 Words   |  4 Pagesthat many hip hop fans like to say nowadays is the ever so popular phrase, Hip Hop is dead. What is meant by that statement is that the quality of the music has diminished significantly. The hip hop artists that were grew up on are either gone (deseased), or are past their prime at this point. That doesn t necessarily mean that, hip hop is dead. Don t get me wrong, there may never be another Tupac, Biggie, or Eminem. All three are often looked at as the best to ever do it. But, hip hop is stillRead MoreAn Insider Of The Subculture Know Hip Hop923 Words   |  4 Pagessubculture know as hip-hop. Quin Smith is a 24-year-old African American male employee at Geico, as a Sales Representative and close friend. He is 5’2, with short wavy black hair, that typically wear collar t- shirts, dark blue jeans, and his favorite pair of white shoes. Now, to you he may seem like a short nerd with no life (lol) but, not true. I mean, he is a nerd, but a handsome vibrant nerd that loves to have fun At the age of eleven Mr. Smith started listening to hip-hop music after purchasingRead MoreTupac Shakur: a Hip Hop Inspiration1236 Words   |  5 PagesTupac Shakur: A Hip-Hop Inspiration Music is a cultural journal that expresses the realities and emotions of life in a poetic way. For the African American culture, music has always been a statement for many controversial topics such as racism, religion, politics, education, crime, and violence. In the 1990’s, Hip-Hop became the newest cultural and artistic voice for the African American population. Genres such as jazz, blues, rock-n-roll, and gospel that once dominated the musical cultureRead MoreHip Of Hip Hop Music1128 Words   |  5 Pages Hip Hops Redemption Hip hop music is described as, â€Å"a subculture especially of inner-city youths who are typically devotees of rap music†. (Merriam.com) Hip hop music is one of the most listened to genres in history. Hip-hop music started in the mid 1970’s, but some say that it started much earlier. Many people today would argue that Hip Hop is disgraceful now a days, and that it has no positive message given. Me personally, I would agree since the days have changed overRead More Hip Hop Essay1426 Words   |  6 PagesHip Hop Hip-hop is a musical art form, created by African-Americans and Latino-Americans in the mid seventies. Its conception came from a young generation of African-Americans in the Bronx, who created a beautiful, prideful expression of music, art and dance from a backdrop of poverty. Since that ignition in a New York City borough, it has inspired people from all socio-economic and cultural backgrounds all across the world. When hip-hop is discussed as an art form and not just as rapRead MoreHip Hop : A Genre Of Music1431 Words   |  6 PagesHip hop is widely know as a genre of music that started in a New York City borough called the Bronx in the late 1970s, but it is more than just the music. Hip hop is a culture that consists of being a disc jockey which is also known as deejaying or turntabling, MCing or rhyming â€Å"rapping†, graffiti, fashion, and breakdancing. Hip hop was mostly an underground culture only know to the people living in the Bronx. Hip hop is a relatively ne w culture which fascinates most people because it of its somewhatRead More A Violent Message in the Art of Popular Culture Essay1679 Words   |  7 PagesPresently, music in popular culture is defined as something real and tangible that generates the essence of culture or ethnicity. This paper will concentrate on rap and hip hop because many people confuse the music with the culture. People embrace the music, but defend the culture as being influenced by the music. Rap and hip hop is not just people reciting rhymes over a beat, but a music genre that reflects the creativity and authencity of a popular culture. According to Costello, Foster, andRead MoreHip Hop Music And Its Effect On People1130 Words   |  5 PagesHip hop music is described as, â€Å"a subculture especially of inner-city youths who are typically devotees of rap music†. (Merriam.com) Hip hop music is one of the most listened to genres in history. Hip hop music started in the mid 1900’s, but some say that it started much earlier. Many people today would argue that Hip Hop is disgraceful now a days, and that it has no positive message given. Me personally I would agree since the days have changed. I could argue that music as a whole has changed andRead MoreEssay about Radical Feminism and Hip Hop1550 Words   |  7 PagesSince its emergence in the South Bronx in the 1970’s, hip hop has spread to both urban and suburban communities throughout the world. Once an underground genre of music, it is seen in commercials, movies, television shows, etc. It has transformed from music and expanded into a full cu lture. It has even made its way into fashion and art. Men have always been on the front line of Hip Hop. However, the lyrics and images have changed tremendously. Lyrics and images that once spoke upon the injustices

Sir Gawain the Green Knight Free Essays

Middle English love is that of abiding the rules of chivalry and the subservience to God. Within Sir Gawain and The Green Knight, love is emanated within this form of a romantic poem. This fifteenth century poem was written with all the characteristics of love and its challenges that so often come with it. We will write a custom essay sample on Sir Gawain the Green Knight or any similar topic only for you Order Now The story of the intrusive Green knight ends up having a twist that confronts the norms that knights have adopted. Sir Gawain, a model for knights in the Arthurian kingdom, ultimately redefines himself and his love for all codes of his kingdom manner. Through this romantic journey the model knight will rediscover the truth through deception. The many forms of love including chivalry, spiritual and courtly love will become strengthened through the Green knight challenge. Chivalry is a common theme within Sir Gawain, â€Å"By champions of chivalry achieved in arms. † (95) From the dinner scene in part one to the illustrious battle at the Green Chapel in Part 3. The love of keeping their virtues was imbedded in all aspects of the story. Sir Gawain was the epitome for these virtues, through his valiant journey to the Green Chapel and strong will against the lady of the house. â€Å"With the pentangle portrayed in purest gold. † (620) The five points of pentangle represent his perfection over evil. He loves being faultless in decisions that as long as he stays to the five points the Lord would keep him. With the five points on the front of his shield and Mother Mary on the back he had all the armor one needed. A great romance mustn’t be left without spiritual love, especially to a chivalric knight. Gawain’s truth to his faith has him praying for help, â€Å"that Mary may be his guide. † (738) His prayers were answered soon after from which a â€Å"wondrous dwelling [appeared]. † (763) The great feasts also show the love of their God for the extravagant meals that are abundantly shown. â€Å"Great is God’s grace, and goodly indeed. † (920) Which is expressed for the gratitude of Gawain’s presence. The importance and love of faith in Gawain’s quest does not come without its trials. The lovely lady of the house became another test of his chivalry and faith. With guile in her heart,† (1472) she makes several attempts to test Gawain’s strength. With her permission to â€Å"lay on as you like,† (1503) she also uses her cunning to pursue and manipulate his love. â€Å"For loyal faith in love, in life as in story,† (1513) she tempts him with courtly love to abide by the chivalrous approach. To have relations wh ile her â€Å"husband is not nearby,† (1533) from which was made under thrice. â€Å"The two converse as friends of true love’s trials and bliss,† (1506) this spoken from the narrator hints to love being a state of suffering within the story. Although they may love and suffer Gawain becomes better for it. Through his mistakes over love and faith it eventually leads him to a better understanding and a united brotherhood with the green girdle. The significance of the knight’s honor and brotherhood is mentioned throughout. â€Å"To counsel their comrade, with care in their hearts,† (558) after love for God the counsel and brotherhood is most important. Their â€Å"beneficence boundless and brotherly love,† (652) was shown before Gawain took forth. Even after Gawain confessed to the kingdom that he had not met his journey with success he was still comforted by the king. â€Å"The king comforts the knight, and the court all together. † (2513) Gawain wore the â€Å"badge of false faith that [he] was found in there. † (2509) As a sign of deep support and love by his fellow brothers, he was met with all bearing the green sash. Clearly it is evident that love plays a crucial role in Sir Gawain and The Green Knight. Although the love is enduring for Gawain it was not as it seemed. The true love is what ended up being his true suffering. Gawain’s struggles through keeping his five points of perfection, his composure with the lovely lady and the brotherhood that supported him no matter what the outcome. These were the true challenges that love had brought about. His Lord and Mother Mary guidance to the castle had also been a test to his capabilities. Though he did his most human effort to stay true to his virtues the test of the Green knight was just that. To breakdown the perfection of the knight hood ideals and come out stronger for it. How to cite Sir Gawain the Green Knight, Essay examples

The Things They Carried A Story By free essay sample

Tim O # 8217 ; brien Essay, Research Paper ? The Things They Carried? How does decease impact the behaviour of people? Although decease affects everyone? s behaviour otherwise, cognition of one? s at hand decease is a chief force behind behavioural alterations. This cognition causes emotions that motivate people to move in ways that they usually would non. In Tim O? Brien? s? The Things They Carried, ? the cognition of decease and its intimacy causes the work forces in the narrative to change their behaviour by altering they manner they display power, modifying emotions to alleviate guilt, and by exhibiting different actions to ease anxiousness. Death can alter how people display their power or how they use their bing power by changing their behaviour. Power is an emotionally strong component to hold ; power can do person experience better by cognizing that they have control over person or something else. When fright is present, power can help in easing the anxiousness by giving the individual the emotional lift that is present when control is felt. The power, which is present in the narrative, is physical power and an illustration is Norman Bowker transporting a pollex of a male child that had been killed. The carrying of the pollex shows that he had power over the male child ; this gives him some alleviation to cognize he had that sort of control. Cross? s power, over the remainder of the work forces, increased his fright of decease for all the work forces non merely himself because he is responsible for them. With his duty, Jimmy Cross alters his behaviour to maintain all of his work forces safe, and he merely does this because of his power. An illustration of Jimmy Cross altering his behaviour because of power was after Lavender was killed, when he led the troop into the town of Than Khe to destruct everything they could. Jimmy had been moving more passively about the war before Lavender was killed, but after he was shot Lieutenant Cross? s power over the town and his work forces made him take them into the small town to de struct it when he would non hold usually. The devastation of the small town does non convey Lavender dorsum or even do Cross experience better, but it shows how decease can change behavior with power. Guilt can do people to alter actions or ideas really quickly. It does this because guilt makes the individual repent how they ignored their values or ideals and the alteration comes from desiring to non reiterate the misjudgment of their actions. The involved alterations to alleviate guilt are alterations of behaviour. The alterations can be a alteration in one? s values or ideals on life or they could be a alteration in actions that they have been making. In the narrative Lieutenant Cross makes both of the alterations after the decease of Lavender. He changes his values by admiting that Martha was non in love with him and now he would non be in love with her and he besides burnt the images and letters so he was non looking at them any longer. The guilt that they all felt altered how they acted. Some of the work forces made gags about tense state of affairss that were non amusing because jesting made them experience better. The state of affairs grew lighter by laughter, even though t he work forces knew nil was amusing about their state of affairs, and this cognition made them experience guil ty about their insensitive Acts of the Apostless because it violated their values. The manner the work forces dealt with their guilt was by go throughing the incrimination or seeking non to believe about how incorrect it was, even though they knew. These sorts of unusual reactions to usually strain or tragic state of affairss are a manner to ease the fright of decease. Anxiety about decease follows the work forces everyplace they go and they have many different ways to mask their fright and many ways to support against it. The work forces were ready for everything in the war: they had their wireless to name in aid, their guns to support against enemies, and their pride and self-respect to mask fright. Disguising fright is really hard because it is such a strong emotion. Great fright is impossible to conceal as apparent by the actions of the work forces when they were involved in the intense battles where they would state? Dear Jesus and ( floating-point operation ) around on the Earth and ( fire ) their arms blindly and ( cringe ) and ( shortness of breath ) and ( beg ) for the noise to halt? ( 1075 ) . When it was all over they would acquire up dust them egos off and seek to smile to demo their self-respect and strength. Their strength in these state of affairss was lost for the clip, but because of the anxiousness they wanted to alter their exist ent behaviour to look fearless and ready for more. This type of action was done all the clip by the work forces they weren? T being barbarous they were merely concealing their frights O? Brien says? They were afraid of deceasing, but they were even more afraid to demo it? ( 1075 ) . This alteration in their behaviour is a camouflage of fright, but it is besides a defence against it. The work forces had many defences against fright including joking, being cruel, transporting guns, and killing other people. The work forces were most likely non barbarous persons, but to support against fright they had to take compassion for people, actions, and themselves. The work forces did this to non experience the hurting that is present when they lose a member of the group ; if they feel no fond regard to him there is no feeling of loss. The work forces? s actions did non look cruel to them ; it was merely their manner of combating against fright. This type of separation is a major alteration in behaviour because it is natural to go affiliated to others when they are close. Another major alteration in behaviour is the work forces killed other work forces ; it is non normal for these civilized work forces to walk through a jungle and kill other work forces. Why do they kill the other work forces? Because if they don? T putting to death, they will be killed and they know this a nd esteem it. The work forces have regard because of the fright they have of decease, and the fright is entered into them by experience and it is a major portion in their behavioural alteration. The ground the work forces changed behaviorally in the narrative was chiefly due to fear, but there are many other grounds why people change. Taking orders is another manner of altering as the work forces did in the narrative, separate themselves, lose compassion, and kill, because person else told them to. The orders gives the individual an alibi that? I was merely following orders, ? good in a sense that is what the work forces were making in the narrative. In the narrative they were following the unwritten orders of war and they changed their behaviour because they were told to by the war.

Timothy free essay sample

I anxiously wait as the elevator takes me to where two worlds will intertwine. The duffel bags filled with clothing and toiletries for my brother become cumbersome. As I exit the elevator, I immediately inhale the aroma of hospital supplies and cafeteria food. I sense pain and suffering as I walk past the rooms of patients, hearing their cries of misery. My heart throbs rapidly because I know that just a few doors down my brother Timothy also lies confined in a white-walled, sterile room, attached to IVs that pump antibiotics into his body. I enter the anteroom, where I put on a hospital gown, a face mask, shoe covers, and gloves to reduce his exposure to germs. As I enter, I see him resting, recovering from his second bone marrow transplant. The summer before junior year, this hospital was my second home. This room served as our family’s dining room, emitting the smell of my mother’s home-cooked chicken potpie and overflowing with my summer school assignments. We will write a custom essay sample on Timothy or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page When the summer passed and the school year arrived, there was less opportunity to be at the hospital, but I was determined to make time for visits. The dilemma between visiting my brother and schoolwork has turned into a balancing act. As I support him, his strength grows, and in turn he encourages me in my academics. These visits are no longer a sacrifice but are times when both of us gain tremendous strength over what seem to be insurmountable obstacles. I scan this familiar room and observe that, as the weeks pass, not only have the once-dull walls transformed into a collage of brightly colored drawings imparting hope to Room 750, but I too am adapting to my rigorous schedule. Although the first bone marrow transplant failed and could have potentially taken his life, fortunately, Timothy was given a second chance when my sister became his donor. While he recuperates, my parents, siblings, and I sit by his bedside day and night offering support. As the new marrow travels through his body destroying the old, Timothy endures excruciating pain but feels comfort in our presence. New hope flows through me, and I too am rejuvenated. My own fatigue subsides, allowing me to focus on keeping my academic standards high. During my brother’s 104-day hospitalization, I watch his spirit revive, enabling me to be strengthened too. In his absence, my responsibilities grow as I take on the role of oldest brother. I willingly provide a strong shoulder for my younger brother and an even stronger one for my sister to cry on during such an emotional time. This experience has been an opportunity for personal growth. By observing Timothy I have learned that through hard work and dedication, success can be achieved. I know that I am capable of attaining even greater achievements through adversity.

What Is Personality, and Is It Predictive Of Human Behavior

What Is Personality, and Is It Predictive Of Human Behavior Personality Personality, according to Harrà © Lamb (1986, p .1), is the entirety of feature and traits, as of manners or qualities that are particular per person. Personality is all about a person’s mind-sets, dispositions, performing, opinions, and method of thoughts, perceiving, and verbal communication. Hypothesis concerning personality or individuality have been formulated and existed in the majority of traditions and all through recorded history.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on What Is Personality, and Is It Predictive Of Human Behavior? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Many people have studied personality and have come up with discoveries and explanations on the subject. For instance, Giambattista, Charles-Louis Montesquieu, and Vico Immanuel Kant all of them put forward ways of comprehending person and group differences. Others include Carl Jung, psychiatrics therapist Sigmund Freud, Ernst Kr etschmer, and Alfred Adler who presented contending personality hypothesis. Freud’s hypothesis was founded on â€Å"psychosexual drives that had the components of the id, ego, and super ego and the interplay of the conscious, sub-conscious and unconscious† (Shane, 2007, p.3) Carl Jung, his student and follower emphasized unconscious motives but de-emphasized sexuality. Instead, he advanced a typical theory that classified people as either introverts or extroverts. He claimed that individual personalities were from the unconscious, inherited memories. Later on, we still had theories brought forward by other psychologists like Gordon. W. Allport, Erik H. Erikson, and Carl R. Rogers, which were all influential. Gordon wanted to find out common ideology that could be functional to a complete category of persons. It was called personality trait theory. He discovered 4000 words that could be applied to personality traits and categorized them into three classes. These were ca rdinal, central, and secondary traits. Cardinal traits are strong dispositions that shape behaviors and experiences and develop later in life. By definition, â€Å"Central traits are dispositions that manifest to some degree in all individuals, comprising the basic repertoire of personality expressions† (Barrick Mount, 1991, p.15). Secondary personalities are dispositions that are not straight away noticeable, manifesting as a result of precise sets of conditions in a human being’s life. Later on Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck expanded on this theory. They reduced the list of four thousand to sixteen. Later on Eysenck reduced them to three. Skeptical psychoanalysts said this were too few and came up with five traits, which were inconclusive as they did not prove to be effective predictors of human behavior and did not shed any light onto how they developed. These traits were known as the big 5 and they are openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeable and neu roticism (Barrick Mount, 1991). Personality character is thought to be as a result of â€Å"both experience and genetic predisposition† (Harrà © Lamb, 1986, p.2). It has been severally discussed and researched to find out what influences behavior in human beings. Some strongly believe it is a particular situation while others believe it is character type.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to Kenrick funder (2001), personality is a predictor of personality across all situations but not at a specific time or situation, for instance, personality more accurately predicts how happy one will be over the next year than it. People choose their situations, which reflect their personality. For example, people choose where to work according to how comfortable they feel with their environment; with the best performance occurring when there is a positive matc h between the two otherwise mediocre results will be the order of the day. A type of personality refers to categories that are distinct and discontinuous (patterns of relatively enduring characteristics of behavior) whereby one is either one or the other e.g. one is either an introvert or an extrovert (Ornstein, 1993). Today, several scientists have all come up with their different personality types and model systems that classify them. Some are categorized into 4, 9, 16, and many more. This essay has categorizes personalities or individuality into four categories that is: The extroverts and the introverts The thinking and feeling types Sensitive and intuitive types Perceiving and judging types Extroverts and introverts Extroverts concentrate on the globe and acquire their power from it, are conversational and frank, evaluate their views with the rest, they make new friends with no trouble and become accustomed to a fresh assembly, they express their thoughts, are keen on new comm unity and effortlessly smash unnecessary relations. Introverts in contrast concentrate on their belief and feelings, produce their energy from within and consequently call for their own territory or region, frequently emerge as reserved, silent and thoughtful, typically they have less associates, have troubles in creating new links, and never want to work in group. They are generally very difficult to deal with and therefore this can be a predictive of their behavior (Shane, 2007). Sensitive and intuitive types Sensitive kind notice every person and are sensitive to everything around them, are realistic and lively, are reasonable and self-assured, they love enjoyments derived from physical feeling, swiftly become accustomed to whichever the circumstances and exist at this time. Intuitive or instinctive categories in contrast are more often than not â€Å"in the past or the present, rely on their inner voice, worry about the future than they do of the present, are attracted more to the theory than to the practice, often have doubts and do not like routine†( Ornstein, 1993, p.12).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on What Is Personality, and Is It Predictive Of Human Behavior? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Thinking and feeling types The thinking kind of people are keen on organizations, compositions and prototypes, renders all to rational investigation, are comparatively unfriendly and unresponsive, assess everything by mental power and true or false, have complexities discussing on feelings and do not get to the bottom of a row or squabbles. The feeling category are keen on human beings and their thoughts, effortlessly pass their personal feelings or moods to people around them, give immense concentration to love and fervor, weigh up issues by moral values and excellent or poor, they can get touchy and employ sensational exploitation and regularly give admiring comments to make ha ppy people. Perceiving and judging types The perceiving sort of people operate on impulse following the state of affairs, can initiate numerous projects at the same time with no concluding any of the project accurately. They have a preference to have liberty from responsibilities, are inquisitive and akin to a new appearance at things, work efficiency is dependent on their frame of mind, and habitually do something with no any groundwork or preparation. The judging type on the other hand does not like to leave unanswered questions, plan work ahead, and tend to finish it, do not like to change their decisions, have relative stable workability, and easily follow rules and discipline (Gross, 2010). Therefore based on the above four personality models, we see that personality is predictive of individuals’ behaviors. For instance, extroverts who are open to ideas and express their minds explains the ease with which someone can deal with these kind of people and generally well beha ved . On the other hand, introverts are directly opposite of this and are generally considered ill mannered. Individuals behavior determines whether you will interact freely with them or not and as we see, it is easy to deal with people who have personalities such as being sensitive and outgoing for instance as compared to those with opposite traits. For that reason, personality is predictive of human behavior. References Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K. (1991). The Big Five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1–26.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Gross, R.D. (2010). Psychology. The science of mind and behavior. London: Hodder Arnold. Harrà ©, R. Lamb, R. (1986). The dictionary of personality and social psychology. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Kenrick, D. T., Funder, D. C. (1991). The person-situation debate: Do personality traits really exist? In V. J. Derlega, B. A. Winstead, W. H. Jones, W. H. (Eds.) Personality: Contemporary Theory and Research (Chapter 6) Ornstein, R. (1993). The Roots of the Self: Unraveling the mystery of who we  are. New York, NY: Harper Collins. Shane, P. (2007). The Model of human behavior: Understanding personality.  Contemporary Theory, 2, 1-5.

Argumentativ essey on machiavelly Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Argumentativ essey on machiavelly - Essay Example Despite occasions of psychological imbalance, Hitler may be noted for his remarkable military exploits and knowledge of relevant martial tactics. As such, he received decoration with Iron Cross and promotion to a corporal rank after demonstrating bravery for the regiment or German army as a whole (Stokes). Machiavelli likewise proposed for the prince to acquire fighting skills since subsequent triumphs through militaristic pursuit enhance courage which is also a very essential characteristic of a prince. A Machiavellian prince lives by the image and behaves cautiously in order to remain in power and this combined nature of lion and fox is also symbolic of the approach used by Hitler in forming and securing control of the Nazi party (Stokes). By initially winning the favor of a large crowd who were drawn to his admirable manner of oration which sought pretentious publicity and propaganda (Stokes) overall, he found his way to earn more followers and influence over political subjects.

Hw Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Hw - Assignment Example The unique factor about Kiva.org’s organization that distinguishes it from other businesses is its role as an agent instead of a party to the lending business. The organization’s role in its empowerment objective is to link different stakeholders towards ensuring that potential entrepreneurs whose major challenge is capital receives help into starting their desired small scale businesses. It only facilitates the lending process and does not lend from its finances, a contrary approach to other businesses that are parties to lending agreements. The organization’s model would not work for larger loans and large-scale business. This is because the types of loans and businesses would entail higher risks such as loss of large amounts of money in defaults. This would have impact that is more significant on the organization and challenge its success as compared to risks in small-scale loans. Lenders would also be unwilling to offer money for large loans because of the nature of the model in which lender have limited control over involved

Digital Futures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Digital Futures - Essay Example This creature is then destined to serve in various fields that a normal human being cannot serve. Likewise, cloning has also drawn the attention of many, where people want to replicate superior organisms. The Australian Defense Forces has shown great interest on the emerging cyborg technology, asserting that it will serve a great deal in boosting its security. This paper will discuss digital futures in light of cyborg technology in the Australian Defence Forces. Cyborg technology Human beings have been ambitious in the creation of living things from non-living parts. While this may seem like just a dream, tremendous progress has been made in this field. This artificial creation of life can be categorized into two broad classes. First is carbon-based live, where living organisms are developed from classical building blocks of nature. The other one is where scientists create living organisms using the same principles of creation, but implementing them differently. This may be through m achines such as computers or laboratory bags. Cyborg technology falls under the first mode of creation where organisms are developed from components found in the world. This process uses materials that have no relation with the human body such as metals and plastics (Adami, 1998). Cyborg technology is no longer a myth, as it is possible to develop robots that can function as well as human being. With technology, scientists are now able to develop structures that enhances the functionality of human being. They argue that humans have limited capability and to survive in a complex world, the society needs a structure with superior abilities. As a result they have developed a human-robot with superior intelligent than the normal robots, and named it cyborg. A cyborg, as the name suggests is a cybernetic organism, composed of the human part and the machine part. These two parts are integrated in a special way in order to perform the required tasks (Warwick, n.d). However, there are numer ous challenges that are associated with the functionality of a cyborg, bearing in mind that human beings are the one that control it. The big question still lies as to whether cyborgs have been able to accomplish the purpose they were designed for, or more research needs to be conducted for their improvement (Seed, 2005). What constitutes a cyborg is still vague as it is possible to narrow the definition to any living organism, whose body system has mechanical or biotechnologies. With this regard, about 10% for instance of the United States citizens are cyborgs. This group of people in technical terms includes those who have artificial joints, drug implant systems, artificial skins or with electronic pacemakers. In short, those with an artificial element that prevents their bodies to act naturally. On the other hand, a large number of people engage in careers that make them metaphoric cyborgs. It is with certainty that these people accidentally found themselves in this category (See d, 2005). The creation of the cyborg started when the military saw the need for improving its performance. With rise in human power and military equipment, the military sought to develop a structure that would function more than human beings would. As a result, it opted to combine the human element and the mechanical element to come up with a superior product. Initially, scientists through accidents had replaced most of the vital organs in

Advantages Of Internal Combustion Engines Engineering Essay

Advantages Of Internal Combustion Engines Engineering Essay The most widely used heat engine is the internal combustion engine. The advantages that it has over gas turbines have seen its widespread usage in passenger car applications. [1] All the components of internal combustion engines work at an average temperature which is below the maximum temperature of the working fluid in the working cycle. This is because the high temperature of the working fluid in the cycle persists only for a very small fraction of the cycle time. As a result, fluids with high working temperatures can be used to increase thermal efficiency at moderate maximum working pressures. Weight to power ratio is less than that of steam turbine and gas turbines. It is therefore possible to develop reciprocating IC engines of very small power output with reasonable thermal efficiency and cost. Higher brake thermal efficiency can be obtained as only a small fraction of heat energy of the fuel is dissipated to the cooling system. Initial cost is low. Materials used in the manufacture of gas turbines must be strong and heat resistant in order to sustain the heat generated. Machining operations required for gas turbines construction are also more complex. Reciprocating IC engines are more efficient at idle speeds than gas turbines in terms of fuel consumption at idling. Gas turbines have delayed responses to different power requirements changes. Gas turbines must be removed for overhaul and servicing, which is usually not the case in internal combustion engines. Gas turbines require more air than IC engines for its normal operation. It also consumes more fuel whenever the load fluctuates, which is common in the domestic usage. All these explain why passenger cars do not use gas turbine engines, but use internal combustion engines instead. Question 2 Define the following parameters and give typical values for spark-ignition and compression ignition IC engines: Specific fuel consumption, Specific fuel consumption (SFC) is the fuel flow rate per unit power output []. It measures how efficiency of an engine in using the fuel to produce useful work. The equation for the specific fuel consumption is: Where: Ke= specific fuel consumption K: Fuel Consumption, kg/s Pe=Useful work per cycle, i = 0.5 for 4ÃŽ, 1 for 2ÃŽ ne=real efficiency HÃŽÂ ± =Heat of Combustion = 42.000 KJ/Kg Low values of SFC are obviously desirable. For SI engines typical values of brake specific fuel consumption are about 270 g/kWh. Range (345 285 g/kWh) For CI engines, values are lower and in large engines can go below 200 g/kWh. Range (285 190 g/kWh) [2] Mean effective pressure, Relative engine performance measure is obtained by dividing the work per cycle by the cylinder volume displaced per cycle. The parameter so obtained has units of force per unit area and is called the mean effective pressure (mep). Where: W=Indicated Work: Vh=Piston Displacement (cylinder) Volume (cc, cm3, lt) H=Length TDC Length BDC For, Naturally aspirated spark ignition engines, maximum values are in the range 850 to 1050 kPa at the engine speed where maximum torque is obtained (about 3000 rev/min). Turbocharged automotive spark-ignition engines the maximum bmep is in the 1250 to 1700 kPa range. Naturally aspirated four-stroke diesels, the maximum bmep is in the 700 to 900 kPa range Turbocharged four-stroke diesel maximum bmep values are typically in the range 1000 to 1200 kPa Turbocharged aftercooled engines this can rise to 1400 kPa Two-stroke cycle diesels have comparable performance to four-stroke cycle engines. Large low-speed two-stroke cycle engines can achieve bmep values of about 1600 kPa. [2] Power-torque relation as function of engine rpm, Engine torque is measured using a dynamometer. The engine is clamped and the output shaft is connected to the dynamometer rotor. The rotor is coupled electromagnetically, hydraulically, or by mechanical friction to a stator, which is supported in low friction bearings. The stator is balanced keeping the rotor stationary. The torque exerted on the stator with the rotor turning is measured by balancing the stator with weights, springs, or pneumatic means. Fig.1 Brake dynamometer- engine torque test [2] Torque is a measure of an engines ability to do work; and power is the rate at which work is done. The value of engine power measured as described above is called brake power Pb. This power is the usable power delivered by the engine to the load-in this case, a brake. Fig.2 Engine power, torque vs. speed plot [3] Correlation between measured force and engine torque: Measured power: (1 PS = 0.736 kW) Conversion between different units may be necessary for power, torque, or angular speed. For example, if rotational speed (revolutions per time) is used in place of angular speed (radians per time), a factor of 2à Ã¢â€š ¬ radians per revolution have to be multiplied. Dividing on the left by 60 seconds per minute and by 1000 watts per kilowatt gives us the following. mbox{power (kW)} = frac{ mbox{torque (N}cdotmbox{m)} times 2 pi times mbox{rotational speed (rpm)}} {60,000} Volumetric efficiency Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the mass inside the engine cylinder to the mass of air of the displacement volume at atmospheric conditions. It measures the effectiveness of an engines induction process. Volumetric efficiency is used for four-stroke cycle engines which have a distinct induction process and not for two stroke engines. Where pai is the inlet air density Alternatively volumetric efficiency can also be defined as, Indicative values: 4ÃŽ-Otto: 0.7 0.9 2ÃŽ-Otto: 0.5 0.7 Typical maximum values of ÃŽÂ ·v for naturally aspirated engines are in the range 80 to 90 percent. The volumetric efficiency for diesels is somewhat higher than for SI engines. [2] Engine real efficiency as function of engine power, fuel consumption and fuel calorific value The real engine efficiency of an engine can be found out using the relation Where, ne=real efficiency nth= theoretical thermodynamic efficiency ng=quality coefficient (0.4-0.7 Otto; 0.6-0.8 Diesel) nm=mechanical efficiency (0.8) ni=actual efficiency (nth.ng=Pi/Q) K= fuel consumption Kg/s HÃŽÂ ± =Heat of Combustion = 42.000 KJ/Kg Question 3 Describe with simple terms the main air flow path developing inside the cylinder of IC engines relative to the piston motion; make a simple schematic to indicate them. Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) helps us to visualise the charge motion within the cylinder with the help of optically transparent research engines. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) can help in validating the average flow field in the cylinder but the process is expensive. One such CFD software is KIVA-4v, which helps to predict the air charge motion. Swirl flow Swirl is defined as the micro mass rotational motion of charge within the cylinder. It is generated by constructing the intake system to give a tangential component to the intake flow as it enters the cylinder. This is done by shaping and contouring the intake manifold, valve ports, and sometimes even the piston face. Swirl enhances the mixing of air and fuel to give a homogeneous mixture in a short time in modern high-speed engines. It is also responsible for very rapid spreading of flame front during the combustion. Fig.3 Swirl flow in the engine cylinder [3] Swirl flow can be generated by changing the geometry of the inlet port Fig.4 Geometry of inlet port affecting swirl flow [3] (a) Deflector wall (b) directed (c) shallow ramp helical (d) steep ramp helical Similarly inlet valve approach geometry can also generate swirl flow by producing net in-cylinder angular momentum of the charge. Fig.5 Inlet valve geometry affecting swirl flow [2] Squish flow When the piston approaches TDC at the end of the compression stroke, the volume around the outer edges of the combustion chamber reduces drastically. New combustion chamber designs have the clearance volume near the centerline of the cylinder. As the piston approaches TDC, the gas mixture occupying the volume at the outer radius of the cylinder is forced radially inward as this outer volume is reduced to near zero. This radial inward motion of the gas mixture is called squish. It adds to other mass motions within the cylinder to mix the air and fuel, and quickly spreads the flame front. Maximum squish velocity usually occurs at about 10 °bTDC. During combustion, the expansion stroke begins and the volume of the combustion chamber increases. As the piston moves away from TDC, the burning gases are propelled radially outward to fill the now-increasing outer volume along the cylinder walls. This reverse squish helps to spread the flame front during the latter part of combustion Piston motion influences squish as in the case of wedge shaped and bowl-in combustion chambers. Fig.6 Piston motion generating squish [2] (a) Wedge shaped SI combustion chamber (b) bowl-in-piston DI Diesel combustion chamber Tumble As the piston nears TDC, squish motion generates a secondary rotational flow called tumble. This rotation occurs about a circumferential axis near the outer edge of the piston bowl Fig.7Tumble- result of piston motion and squish [3] Turbulence Due to the high velocities involved, all flows into, out of, and within engine cylinders are turbulent flows. The exception to this is those flows in the corners and small crevices of the combustion chamber where the close proximity of the walls dampens out turbulence. As a result of turbulence, thermodynamic transfer rates within an engine are increased by an order of magnitude. Heat transfer, evaporation, mixing, and combustion rates all increase. As engine speed increases, flow rates increase, with a corresponding increase in swirl, squish, and turbulence. This increases the real-time rate of fuel evaporation, mixing of the fuel vapor and air, and combustion. Intake turbulent mixture flow Turbulence superimposed on mixture swirl Fig.8 Turbulence of the charge within cylinder [4] Question 4 The Figure below shows a conceptual model of a quasi-steady Diesel combustion plume, as presented by Dec et al in 1997. Indicate the following areas shown on this schematic: liquid fuel , rich vapour fuel-air mixture , fuel-rich premixed flame, initial soot formation , diffusion flame boundary , thermal NO production zone , soot oxidation zone , 25398f1.jpg Fig.9 Quasi-steady Diesel combustion plume [5] The above figure describes the formation and features of a quasi-steady diesel fuel jet. This model is applicable to large bore, quiescent chamber combustion or a free fuel jet without wall interactions. At the point of fuel injection, fuel penetrates into the combustion chamber and air which is at a high temperature due to end of compression stroke begins to mix with the spray. Fuel absorbs energy from the hot air and evaporates. This process continues until a point where no liquid fuel is present. The point at which this occurs is called the liquid length. This liquid length reduces after the start of combustion but thereafter remains constant until the end of injection. Beyond the liquid length, the rich premixed fuel and air are still heated by the surroundings until they start to react in the rich premixed zone. The products of rich combustion continue downstream and diffuse and mix radially outward until reaching the surrounding cylinder gases. At a location where the rich prod ucts and cylinder gases mix to produce a stoichiometric mixture, a diffusion flame is produced. The diffusion flame surrounds the jet in a thin turbulent sheet, which extends upstream towards the nozzle. The axial distance from the nozzle exit to the diffusion flame is the lift-off length. The lift-off length controls the amount of oxygen mixed into the fuel jet and therefore the stoichiometry. Soot is burned out and NOX is produced on the outside of the diffusion flame, where temperatures are high and oxygen and nitrogen are abundant. Question 5 What are the main requirements of the fuel injection system for a direct injection engine? In recent years, significant progress has been made in the development of advanced computer-controlled fuel injection systems, which has had much to do with the research and development activities related to Direct Injected engines being expanded. [6]The main requirements of the fuel injection system for a direct injection engine are: Well atomised fuel spray independent of chamber pressure conditions Injection during the compression stroke against pressures up to 20bar Injection during the intake stroke against atmospheric pressures with stoichiometric homogeneous mixture To have uniform distribution of fuel in a multi cylinder engine To improve breathing capacity of an engine i.e. volumetric efficiency To reduce or eliminate detonation To prevent fuel loss in the form of scavenging in the case of two stroke engines. For an efficient combustion of a stratified mixture, a stable and compact spray geometry is necessary Injection pressure has been determined to be very important for obtaining both effective spray atomization and the required level of spray penetration. Accurate fuel metering (generally a +2% band over the linear flow range); Desirable fuel mass distribution pattern for the application; Minimal spray skew for both sac and main sprays; Good spray axisymmetry over the operating range; Minimal drippage and zero fuel leakage, particularly for cold operation; Small sac volume; Good low-end linearity between the dynamic flow and the fuel pulse width; Small pulse-to-pulse variation in fuel quantity and spray characteristics; Minimal variation in the above parameters from unit to unit. Question 6 Describe the injection process requirements for direct injection Diesel engines and the evolution of the fuel injection equipment over the last few decades. The functional requirements of the fuel injection system are as follows Accurate fuel metering per engine working cycle Injection timing to ensure maximum power, good fuel economy and low emissions Obtain the desirable heat release pattern by control of injection rate Atomisation of the fuel Proper spray pattern to ensure better mixing of fuel and air Uniform distribution of fuel droplets in the combustion chamber Supply equal quantities of fuel to all cylinders, in the case of multi cylinder engines Eliminate dripping of fuel droplets into the combustion chamber by eliminating injection lag between start and end of injection Evolution of fuel injection equipment: In-line pump Fig.10 Layout of In-line fuel injection pump [7] Though in-line pumps are primitive injection systems, they are still in use among heavy duty marine engines. Individual fuel pumps fuel each of the injectors Engine operational speed has a major influence on the fuel injection pressures As a result, there is a hydraulic delay between the pressure increase and the start of injection Fuel flows through high pressure connecting pipes Fuel injection pressures range from 600 1200 bar Injector with discharging in the combustion chamber (the nozzle with one or more holes) Distributor type pumps These are still used in a number of engines Though it started as mechanically operated, now electronic control modifications have been made It has a mechanism which controls the spill valve responsible for cutting off the high pressure generated inside the pumping chamber, and thus, responsible for the termination of injection One pumping chamber delivers high pressure to all the injectors of the engine Pressure depends on engine speed, so a hydraulic delay exists between the pressure generation and start of injection Relatively low injection pressures (up to 1200bar) Fig.11 Distributor type pump (Lucas CAV) [7] Unit injectors Consists of the pump and the injector integrated into one body, which does not require a high pressure connection pipe High fuel pressure is generated close to the nozzle exit, which can be upto 2500 bar. These gave accurate control over injection Each cylinder has its own individual system High pressure developed depends of the engine rpm and the load. Fig.12 General Layout of Unit injector [7] [6]Delphi Diesel Systems electronic unit injectors (EUI fig13.) control the quantity and the timing of injection electronically through a solenoid actuator. The solenoid can respond very quickly (injection periods are of the order 1 ms), to control very high injection pressures (up to 1600 bar or so). The solenoid controls a spill valve, which in turn controls the injection process. The pumping element is operated directly from a camshaft (or indirectly via a rocker), and the whole assembly is contained within the cylinder head. Fig.13 Electronic Unit injector (Lucas EUI system) [7] [6]An alternative approach to the EUI is the Caterpillar Hydraulic Electronic Unit Injector (HEUI, also supplied by other manufacturers). HEUI uses a hydraulic pressure intensifier system with a 7: 1 pressure ratio to generate the injection pressures. The hydraulic pressure is generated by pumping engine lubricant to a controllable high pressure. Similar to CR injection systems, there is control of the injection pressure. The HEUI uses a two-stage valve to control the oil pressure, and this is able to control the rate at which the fuel pressure rises, thereby controlling the rate of injection, because a lower injection rate can help control NOx emissions. Common Rail fuel injection systems One of the last improvements to the fuel injection system is the Common Rail System that was implemented first by the Fiat Company. Fig.14 Common rail fuel injection system [8] Common rail (CR) fuel injection systems decouple the pressure generation from the injection process and have become popular because of the possibilities offered by electronic control. The key elements of a CR fuel injection system are as follows: A (controllable) high-pressure pump The fuel rail with a pressure sensor Electronically controlled injectors An engine management system (EMS) The injector is an electro-hydraulic device, in which a control valve determines whether or not the injector needle lifts from its seat. The engine management system can divide the injection process into four phases: two pilot injections, main injection, and post-injection (for supplying a controlled quantity of hydrocarbons as a reducing agent for NOx catalysts). Common rail injection also enables a high output to be achieved at a comparatively low engine speed Fuel injectors Fig.15 Types of nozzles used in Diesel fuel injectors [1]

Abortion is not Murder in the right circumstances Essay -- essays rese

Abortion Is Not Murder under the Right Circumstances She was only twelve, only for a walk on the street right by her house when he got to her. The experience was terrifying and all she wanted to do was forget about it, forget about him on top of her, making her do things that should only be done with someone she loves. The rape is finally over and he lets her go after making her promise not to tell. A few weeks after the rape she still hadn’t told, but started feeling woozy and nauseous in the morning; she went and consulted in her mother. After waiting out what she believes was a stomach flue for another few weeks she saw that her belly started to grow. She finally told her mother what had happen and the little twelve year old girl was 4 weeks pregnant. A heated discussion among students, parents and government officials is whether abortion should be legal. I recently read an article about a twelve year old girl who had been raped and had her child because no one gave her the option of abortion, her family felt that she would e mbarrass the family because it was morally wrong. Would it have been wrong for this child to theoretically murder her newborn? Murder is the act of taking another’s life with malicious thoughts; it is also taking the life of another human being without medical supervision and by brutal ways. I believe that abortion is not murder if none of those three apply, in the right circumstance, abortion is not murder. Nuss-2 Abortion is the act of terminating...

Case Anaylsis Motivation

Jason Haro 10/10/2012 Management of Organizations Case Analysis: Motivation In order to have an effective performance from a group a people, effective leadership must be used along with good teamwork to have an efficient running company. After analyzing the case of Joe Chaney, it is clear that there has been a fault in leadership along with lack of motivation. In order to fix the situation with Mr. Chaney, a meeting should be established with him to discuss his performance.The first question to start out with is to make sure that Joe realizes there has been a problem with his performance at work. Chances are he will realize there is a problem, since his conversation about complaining about his job was overheard. Once it is established that there is a problem with performance, the next task is to figure out if the problem stems from inadequate subordinate ability or motivation. In the case of Joe Chaney, there is a problem with both ability and motivationThe inadequate subordinate abi lity comes from inadequate resources to do the job leading to a resource problem. Mr. Chaney was hired with mediocre recommendations from his previous employer because help was needed desperately. The firm seems to be understaffed to handle the rise in workload from the local construction boom. The absence of formal performance reviews and career counseling due to time constraints along with losing Friday social hours and making weekends mandatory is a huge demotivating factor for employees, not just Mr. Chaney.The relationship curve between level of conflict and level of performance shows that having too much conflict for extended periods of time leads to low levels of performance. More staff should be hired to ease the workload. Incentive problems are also an issue with Mr. Chaney. Mr. Chaney’s statement of â€Å"no one around here respects my opinion. I’m just a lowly draftsman†¦ because I don’t have the degree, they ignore my input, and I’m stuc k doing the grunt work† shows that there is an issue of Mr. Chaney feeling unappreciated so he has stopped caring about his work.Effective leaders should be empathetic towards his employees. Understanding that he has a wife and children shows that he has concerns for providing for his family. Between working and being a family man, he may not have an opportunity to obtain his degree to have a better title and paying wage. Restarting career counseling and performance reviews would help solve these problems. Credit should be given to Mr. Chaney as his performance, until recently, has been surprisingly well and produced high quality work.

Description of Global Positioning System Device

Description of Global Positioning System Device Many computer technologies are useful in communication of data or information that is essential for decision making pertaining to specific issues or concerns. The major technologies that find relevancies in technical communication are Global Positioning System (GPS) device, MP3 player, waste electrical and electronic equipment, automobile jack, and camera phone. This paper gives a general description of GPS device to enlighten the general public and other interested professionals.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Description of Global Positioning System Device specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More GPS is a radio-navigation system that is set in space and managed by the U.S. Department of Defense and Transportation. Image 1 shows the positions of the various satellites that constitute the GPS. It has been used for accurate determination of positions on the surface of the Earth (Combrink, Combrinck and Moraal 436). It was in itially invented as an enhancement system for the military forces and still serves this purpose as well as the others. Notwithstanding, it also has an adequate capacity to serve the civilian population in large numbers and variety of applications (Arnold, par. 16). According to Arnold (par. 17), the GPS is comprised of three fragments, namely, space fragment, control fragment and user fragment. The space fragment uses 24 satellites suspending in 6 orbital planes. Each satellite rotates around a 20,200km orbit which is inclined at 55 degrees, and completes the rotation in 12 hours. The configurations of the satellites in respective orbits are set in such a way that at least five are within the view of a user at any place on Earth in conjunction with Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP) of six satellites or less. PDOP is a quality measure of the relative configuration of the satellites as shown in figure 1. PDOP is inversely proportional to the degree of evenness in terms of spacing around the sky, so that the more evenly spaced the 24 satellite are, the lower PDOP is. It can be said to be perfect when a satellite situates overhead the user with other three satellites located at 1200 intervals just over the horizon from the user (Arnold, par. 18). Combrink et al. (436) assert that thousands of stationary and mobile receivers also constitute the GPS. Image 1. GPS constellation; expandable 24-slot configuration, as defined in SPS Performance StandardAdvertising Looking for essay on other technology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More (GPS Constellation (Expandable 24-slot configuration, as defined in SPS Performance Standard)) The decrease in precision defines a root mean square estimation of the affect that position solution geometry imposes on positions faults. The experts managing the system can assess geometry affects in four different positions, namely, time position (TDOP), 3-D position (PDOP) , vertical position (VDOP), and horizontal position (HDOP). Arnold (par. 19) points out that the GPS control fragment comprises 5 monitoring stations and 3 ground antennas, which transmit radio or other signals to receivers in the communication satellites in space or aircraft within the atmosphere. The monitoring posts adopt GPS receivers to track every satellite within its scope of view and collect assorted data from the satellites signals. The information dispatched from the various monitoring posts is processed at a larger station, Master Control Station (MCS), located in proximity to the Colorado Springs Colo. It is done to establish satellite clock and orbits profiles in order to update the navigational information of individual satellite. Image 2 a. GPS Block II/IIA Satellite. 2 b. Satellite operators at the MCS, Schriever Air Force Base (GPS Block II/IIA satellite and Satellite operators at the master control station, Schriever Air Force Base)Advertising We will writ e a custom essay sample on Description of Global Positioning System Device specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The user fragment of the GPS includes a range of integration and configurations architectures that encompass a receiver-pre-processor and an antenna to jointly receive and process navigational solutions to give a user positioning, velocity, and exact timing (Delaney 62). Arnold, James A. Surface Transportation and Global Positioning System Improvements: L5 and DGPS. Public Roads 61.4 (1998): 2. Academic Search Complete. Web. http://0-eds.b.ebscohost.com.aupac.lib.athabascau.ca/ehost/detail?sid=35d51614-ed5c-44bb-a7a3-b70236f42dca%40sessionmgr112vid=1hid=102bdata=JkF1dGhUeXBlPXVybCxpcCx1aWQmc2l0ZT1laG9zdC1saXZl#db=a9hAN=345976 Combrink, A. Z. A., W. L. Combrinck, and H. Moraal. Near Real-Time Detection of Atmospheric Water Vapour Using the SADC GPS Network. South African Journal of Science 100.9/10 (2004): 436-442. Academic Search Com plete. PDF file. 14 Feb. 2014. ascau.ca/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=c9f6d8d9-fb93-45be-9bf2-03112b49735e%40sessionmgr113vid=1hid=102 Delaney, John. GPS: Yesterday and Tomorrow. PC Magazine 20.7 (2001): 62. Academic Search Complete. PDF file. 14 Feb. 2014. http://0-eds.b.ebscohost.com.aupac.lib.athabascau.ca/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=13af7390-d31e-4162-9b49-11256c00bc8e%40sessionmgr115vid=1hid=102 GPS Block II/IIA satellite. 31 Jan. 2014. JPEG file. 14 Feb. 2014 gps.gov/multimedia/images/II-IIA.jpg. GPS Constellation (Expandable 24-slot configuration, as defined in SPS Performance Standard). 31 Jan. 2014. JPEG file. 14 Feb. 2014. gps.gov/multimedia/images/constellation.jpg. Satellite operators at the master control station, Schriever Air Force Base. 31 Jan. 2014. JPEG file. 14 Feb. 2014gps.gov/multimedia/images/2SOPS-crew.jpg.Advertising Looking for essay on other technology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More

A Mirror Tells No Lies essays

A Mirror Tells No Lies essays Imagine an emancipated young girl staring at herself in the mirror and seeing only fat. Picture the young girls parents watching their daughter literally whither away to nothing. These are the constant struggles and fears felt within a family dealing with an eating disorder. As our society continues to focus its attention on being thin, the prevalence of eating disorders in this era is rapidly increasing. Food obsessions, such as anorexia nervosa, need to be given serious consideration because of the psychological ramifications and the lasting effects left with the suffering individual. Anorexia Nervosa is characterized by a refusal to maintain body weight at or above a minimally normal weight for age and height, an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat - even though underweight - and a disturbance in the way in which one's body weight or shape is experienced (Chicchi 2). Anorexics are on an endless diet, and are quite literally starving themselves to death. Earlier descriptions of anorexia date back further; however, it was first diagnosed in an eleven-year-old in England in the early 1800s. The first diagnosis was named the eating disorder anorexia mirabilis, or a miraculous loss of appetite. It is now referred to as anorexia nervosa, or a nervous loss of appetite. The term anorexia, however, is a misnomer since the loss of appetite is rare. The onset of anorexia usually occurs during adolescence due to the transition from girlhood to adulthood. Young women who suffer from anorexia often starve themselves in hopes of becoming a perfect, fragile, little girl (Maloney 73). They simply fail to want to accept the physical changes of the human body that coincide with growing up. Ninety-five percent of all anorectics are females, from the ages of twelve to eighteen (Maloney 59). Specific behavioral signs may be present in a person suffering from anorexia. Obsessive e ...

Teaching and Learning Reading Skills Research Paper

Teaching and Learning Reading Skills - Research Paper Example This paper illustrates that various types of media that are available in the society that discourages the students to read more are very accessible. Television, movies, and the like do not require anybody to learn how to read. The mere fact that people should only open their eyes and listen to what is projected on the screen without reading anything leads students to become uninterested in reading. At school, there is not as much student interaction during the reading classes, thus the more the students stay uninterested. Identifying students’ learning strategies are as important as identifying the different teaching strategies that the teachers should implement in a classroom. Children, at a young age, require activities that would make them interested in participating in a reading class. If there are not enough activities that would engage them in learning and developing their skills, more likely, the students would lose focus and resort to disinterest. Specific teaching tec hniques such as additional exercises and activities are necessary to encourage the students to read further. One of the most common teaching techniques that the author has observed among the teachers back in elementary was the focus on the vocabulary words in a reading class rather than the content and comprehension. There are more vocabulary exercises than those that require comprehension and analysis that may have been a lot more interesting for the children than the memorization and use of the words that teachers thought were important for the students to focus on. There are no doubt vocabulary skills should be improved as well, however, reading classes should not put much weight on the definition of the difficult words, but rather, the understanding of the students to the ideas that the reading exercises present. In addition, reading activities were but a part of the language book. Reading comprehension exercises were limited to only a few questions for which no further exercise s are added.

Systems Analysis and Design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Systems Analysis and Design - Essay Example Sitting meditation along with the appliance of mindful awareness in daily activities can also be considered as mindfulness. Mindfulness can be used in children’s treatment to decrease anxiety as well as a coping means when we face emotional pain or distress. There are several methods of meditation: Yoga, breathing exercises, and guided meditations. In general, mindfulness can be used as a tool for improved self-care as well as professional growth. Social liberation needs an increase in social alternatives or opportunities, particularly for people who are quite oppressed or deprived. For example, empowerment procedures should be used to encourage people to use contemplative practices as a way of relieving stress. The benefits or advantages of deploying contemplation techniques in daily life should be advertised all over to so that people may log into the website and learn more about contemplation. So as implementation of contemplative practices system is effective, all obstacles that may hinder its users’ accessibility should be removed. An example is a persuasive system which influences users’ perceptions, behaviors, and various strategies towards different results and behavior change. The website should be easy to log into and view the practices. Besides, the web page should be attractive so as users can stay on the page for long time and also invite other friends to view the page. This will increase the effectiveness of the system. Reinforcement Management offers consequences for moving towards a positive direction. It relies more on reward than punishment. To deliver this contemplative system effectively, users are supposed to be reinforced by thanking them for using the â€Å"mindful† techniques in improving their cognition. For instance, those who book for yoga classes should be encouraged and given extra time or decreased payments so as to encourage them to attend more classes. The

Changes made to New York State labor law due to social media, gender Essay

Changes made to New York State labor law due to social media, gender expression, and bullying - Essay Example Under the federal law of New York State, discrimination may occur when a person is treated differently in a manner that causes an adverse impact to an employee based on his age, gender, disability, sexual orientation amongst other forms of discrimination. New York State Labor Law on Social Media Social media affects most aspects of individuals including employees, and therefore, employers must be able to familiarize themselves with the legal ramifications or implications of their use by the employees. New York introduced legislation in 2012 that prohibited employers from delving into the social media account of would-be applicants for the employment opportunities in their firms or employees through the soliciting of social media accounts or requiring them to log into their accounts. New York State labor laws also protect employees from any disciplinary action or their employment from termination on account of activities done in the social media when they are off-duty. It is important to note that the labor law concerning labor law in New York is written in broad terms to prohibit the employers from discriminating against employees or job applicants for their lawful engagement in social media during non-working hours and outside the premises of the employer, though the engagement in social media may seem contrary to the employer’s interests, practices and policies. The New York Labor Law Section 201-d (2) (c) prohibits the discrimination of an employee for his participation in legal recreational activities outside the working hours and the recreational activities are defined as any lawful activity done at the leisure time for which an employee is not compensated but the employee only engages in it for recreational purposes.1 This section however has not adequately addressed whether social networking can be grouped as a recreational activity, and therefore an employee who engages in an activity that goes contrary to the business interest of the company wil l only be prosecuted by the courts on a case-by-case basis.2 New York State Labor Law on Gender Expression New York has enacted different legislation that protects employees who may suffer from the decisions of their employers due to discrimination based on gender. The labor laws of this state prohibits any employer from having considerations based on your gender at the time of hiring, promoting, transferring, setting wages or hours of work, or when firing any employee from duty. The prohibition against discrimination based on gender is enshrined in Title VII which is a federal law in New York State. This also covers sex discrimination against female employees that may arise from practices or policies that affect the female employees in a negative manner because of pregnancy, child birth and other medical conditions that usually affect females only. The New York State Human Rights Law also expressly prohibits discrimination based on pregnancy,3 and the Equal Pay Act is a federal law of New York State that requires that employers remunerate men and women equal pay for equal work done within the same or similar establishment.4 Two job descriptions can be deemed to be similar or the same if and when each job requires the same skills and

Reliable Sources Worksheet Essay Example for Free

Reliable Sources Worksheet Essay Source 1 †¢Author: Wilson, Wendy Bedwell †¢Date: March 2012 †¢Title: From Trash to Treasure †¢Publication: Dog World. 97 Issue 3, p20-21, 2p Write a 100- to 150-word response to each of the following questions: †¢Is the source reliable? How do you know? This source is very reliable; this magazine has been around for almost 100 yrs. Dog World is a monthly magazine aimed at the community of serious dog enthusiasts and participants, including breeders; conformation exhibitors; obedience, agility, herding and field trial competitors; veterinarians; groomers; and trainers. †¢Is the information relevant to the topic? Yes this story is about a dog rescuer from NJ who picks up dogs from high kill shelters down in West Virginia and brings them back up to be placed in foster homes. On her trip back up she witnessed someone tossing a dog out on the side of the road and leaving it there. Out of curiosity she pulled over where the dog was dropped off to investigate and found a malnourished and injured dog. After 20 minutes they were able to capture the dog and bring it to NJ where its was seen by veterinarians who were able to nurse the dog back to health. †¢Does the information reflect a bias on the author’s part? If so, what is the bias? I did not read any bias material within the article, there was no mention of any retribution toward the original owners. This article basically told a story about how a dog’s life was turned around after a person who carries about dogs rescued this dog and now uses it to help rehabilitate other dogs that have been abused. Source 2 †¢Author: Redwine, Arlo †¢Date: April 2012 †¢Title: Going the Distance †¢Publication: Dealernews, Vol. 48 Issue 4, p18-28, 7p Write a 100- to 150-word response to each of the following questions: †¢Is the source reliable? How do you know? Dealer News is a trade publication that has been around for 17 years. This publication provides news and information for dealers, manufacturers and distributors in the motorcycle and accessory industries. I do not know how reliable this source is due to this is a trade publication and can post bias reviews. †¢Is the information relevant to the topic? â€Å"Going the distance† is relevant to the topic because the author talks about how a young â€Å"go getter† started a motorcycle dealership in the late 70’s. The story tells how this young man grew his business from the ground up to one of the largest Harley Davidson dealerships in the Junction City, Kansas area. †¢Does the information reflect a bias on the author’s part? If so, what is the bias? Yes the information is bias on the author’s part due to the fact that he is telling a story from the eyes of the owner of this dealership. The author does not tell the readers the challenges that took place from competitors or the manufactures that he represented in his store.

History Of Our Fear Of Aging Philosophy Essay

History Of Our Fear Of Aging Philosophy Essay Abstract The fear of aging and death in America has grown into quite the headache. People today seem more concerned with their physical appearance and age than they are with their physical or mental health. Not only is this a factor, but the media, as well as the commercial sales industry, are taking advantage of this fear and using it to their advantage. This fear grips people for many reasons, but the 2 biggest are: 1.) they are afraid of the unknown, and 2.) they are afraid of being alone. Americas Fear of Aging Many people today are convinced that if they can just lift one more weight or just run one more mile, they will never get old. Even if they dont give in and end up getting cosmetic surgery or spend too much money on expensive anti-aging creams that dont work, there comes a day when its too much effort any longer to keep up the fantasy. What began with simply trying to look pretty has become a never-ending battle to be or to find the next fountain of youth in America. If someone has age spots, theres a cream that for that. If you have stretch marks or cellulite, theres a salve or lotion for that. Dark circles under your eyes? Theres a tonic for that as well. Give it time and Apple will develop an app for all your cosmetic woes! Fears and concerns about growing old are being addressed by those who are growing old. They arent content to sit idly by and let death come swooping in on them. Instead they have become more proactive in the fight against the clock (e.g. participating in more physical activities, sharpening their mental abilities via games, puzzles, being more socially interactive with others, etc.). Our Fear of Aging Americans today are in a constant push to keep up with trends. Buy this new car, try this kind of new weight loss shake, etc. Not only do they push you to buy their product, they also bombard you with reasons why their product is so much better than their Brand X competitor. The biggest culprits: The Cosmetic Industry. The message being broadcast by the cosmetic industry is if theres something you that you dont like, well fix it. Bayer (2004) said that from 1997 to 2001, cosmetic procedures increased 311% for women and 256% for men (p. 9). But why are we so afraid of being perceived as old? I have a rule that I can apply to practically anything in life: Everything is just a matter of perception. much like the dichotomy between good and evil. In a standard story or movie, the good guy perceives his actions as being in the good, but the bad guy also sees his actions to be in the good. And each perceives the others actions to be bad. But how they are perceived is determined not only by them, but by outside sources as well (e.g. the readers of the story, the viewers of the movie, etc.). In America, people are more concerned with the perceptions of others rather than of their own. But since when have we let the views of others govern our self-esteem? Growing old shouldnt be viewed as such a bad thing. In some cultures, being old is viewed in an opposite light. There are cultures in which aging is welcomed, as age signifies wisdom. This is usually accompanied by deep respect, honor, and reverence, which ensures that the elderly are well cared for by family members. This is the goal of people in these cultures; to live long enough to get to this place where they can be revered by the younger people for their knowledge and wisdom. In todays society, old people are laughed at and scoffed at by younger people. Old people have become a punch-line for numerous jokes and stereotypes. Rarely are they looked up to for their wisdom; they arent respected for what theyve done in their lives to be able to have the wisdom and knowledge that they do. Younger people laugh at them because they are afraid of getting old just like them, as well as being afraid of looking as old as them. But what drives this fear? The answer is simple: when we get old, we are afraid that we are more than likely going to end up being alone. As we age, our physical appearance drastically changes. Our hair loses its color, our skin loses elasticity which results in wrinkles, we get liver spots, and the list goes on. Its all centered around how we look, and most people think if they look old, no one will want to be with them. Maybe people are afraid of the inner physical changes that take place. As people age their bodies become more worn out, especially if they havent been very physically active or their diet hasnt been the best in the world. And what else accompanies all these aches and pains? Medications that have a dozen or more side-effects, numerous trips to the doctor for this and that ailment, which it-turn gets you MORE medications. Mark Twain once said Life would be infinitely happier if we could only be born at the age of eighty and gradually approach 18 (Drye, 2011.) In other words, we worry about losing our looks, our vitality, our strength, or our sexual energies. If what Mark Twain said were made into reality, we would instead be constantly looking forward to gaining these instead of losing them. The years between eighteen and twenty five are considered to be the best years of anyones life. During these years of early adulthood, humans are the strongest physically and sexually than they will be any other time in their life, and reliving those memories only reminds people of this joy (Berger, 2011.) Our Fear of Death Even worse than fearing growing old is fearing what is almost always associated with growing old: death. A theory by Dr. Sigmund Freud states that peoples fear of death was more of a disguise for some other hidden concern (Encyclopedia of Death and Dying, 2011.) Dr. Freud claimed that the unconscious cannot deal with the passing of time and the concept of life ended cannot register in our brain. With the mind being unable to register our own death, Dr. Freud theorized that everyone is convinced he or she is immortal (Encyclopedia of Death and Dying, 2011.)Â   But what about what happens when we die? Nobody truly knows what will happen or where we will end up, and this stirs peoples fear of the unknown. Will we end up in total annihilation (no afterlife, just non-existence), will we be reincarnated and if so what will we be, or will we go to heaven or hell? No one can really know until death happens to them, and by then its too late. People have always feared the unknown, which has been a severe detriment to humanity throughout history. This has also motivated them to look for answers to whatever it is that they dont know. In 1973, Ernest Beck theorized that the fear of death is real. Not only is the fear real, but it is so intense that the fear of death is the reason for all phobias that exist. Beck noted that people only function day to day because they are able to temporarily deny death. (Encyclopedia of Death and Dying, 2011.) Beck has a very good point, though, because practically all phobias involve death. Someone with Arachnophobia is more than likely afraid that a spider will bite them and theyll die. Someone with Hydrophobia may be afraid of dying from drowning. And someone with Kinemortophobia, even though they have probably watched way too many horror movies/ TV shows, is still afraid of dying at the mercy of a zombie attack. It all comes back to being afraid of death. But no matter which fear someone happens to fear the most, theres one thing that will always remain true: aging and death are inevitable. Theres nothing anyone can do to avoid them and theres nothing that can be done to stop or even slow the progression of either one. So you could ask yourself, If aging and death are going to happen whether I like it or not, should I be afraid all the time? Therapists usually tell people with major phobia issues that in order to conquer their fears, they must first face them. Facing this kind of fear would probably involve more understanding of the reality of the situation than anything else. Conclusion William Alexander Stiling once said Of all things that are feared, the last is death (Lockyer, 1969, p.209.) Aging and death are both facts of life, and theres nothing we can do about it. Changing your appearance in an attempt to look younger may help you hold on to your self-perception of youthfulness, but it wont have any effect on biological progression. The best therapy for this would be to just accept that aging and death will happen. Dont try to fight it; dont try to hide from it. Embrace the fact that theyre inevitable and prepare yourself mentally, spiritually, and physically.

Describing The Obelisk :: Egypt Monuments Essays

Describing The Obelisk Whether you are driving past it on the freeway or it catches your eye as you leave the movie theater, the obelisk that stands in front of the Irvine Spectrum Center is a commanding sight to see. The 50-foot high fiber optic wonder is an impressive display of ancient shape and modern technology. During the evening hours, the needle rhythmically fades from one color to another, changing shades and hues. In daylight, it is a gleaming white beacon to all who look on. It is the identifying feature of a large business center know as the Irvine Spectrum. It is located where the 5 and 405 freeways connect in Irvine. This plaza contains a diversity of shops and restaurants, as well as commercial and business buildings. It is also the site if the Edwards 21 Cinema Complex and Edwards Imax 3-D Theater. Irvine Spectrum is surrounded by expanses of land that have yet to be developed, or are undergoing preliminary steps of development. This center is used by both young and old who shop, eat, and w ork there. Many people go to the Irvine Spectrum for the sole purpose of visiting the most technologically advanced movie theater in the world - the Edwards Imax 3-D Theater. I believe that this attraction is one of the main reasons the obelisk stands in front of the complex. When The Irvine Company, the development firm which built Irvine Spectrum, decided to have this one of a kind theater located at Irvine Spectrum, I think they were searching for something which would represent the grandeur of the new attraction. I believe the obelisk is that something. The stately shape is easily identifiable as one that has endured the test of time, while the advanced fiber-optics which cover the surface add new-age technology to ancient symbolism. The combination of these two factors into the structure of the obelisk parallels the theater because both are classics with a new twist. The obelisk, however, also parallels its counterparts from thousands of years ago. From the remains of great civilizations of the past, obelisks are found to be one of the most easily identifiable monuments of all.

Channels of Distribution and Logistics

Chapter 6 Channels of distribution and logistics LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this chapter you will: n n n n omprehend key elements and decisions in distribution channel design be able to evaluate different configurations of channel structure be familiar with recent trends and developments in channels of distribution appreciate the importance of managing the physical flows of products, services and information into, through, and out of the organization to its customers n grasp the meaning and scope of physical distribution and logistics management n be aware of developments and trends in production and manufacturing, particularly the growth of ‘lean manufacturing’ and implications for logistics n recognize the role of Information Technology and marketing in logistics Channels of distribution and logistics 191 INTRODUCTIONThis chapter deals with the ‘place’ element of marketing strategy (i. e. ‘placement’ of goods and services from their res pective providers into the hands of customers). Before we discuss the structure of marketing channels, followed by logistics, it is useful that we look at their emergence and the functions that channels perform. THE CONSUMER WANTS CYCLE The word ‘channel’ has its origins in the word for canal, which for marketing can be interpreted as a route taken by products as they flow from production to points of intermediate and final use. Marketing is a key factor in a continuous cycle that begins and ends with consumer wants. It is the role of he marketer to interpret consumer wants and combine them with empirical market data such as location of consumers, their numbers and preferences, to establish the starting point for manufacture. On completion of manufacture, the finished product is moved to the consumer and the cycle is complete when he or she obtains satisfaction resulting from product ownership. THE PRODUCER–USER GAP Despite the growth of direct marketing (to be d iscussed in Chapter 10) in today’s complex economy, most producers still do not sell directly to final users. Between them and consumers lie marketing intermediaries. A distribution channel bridges the gap between user and producer, and so plays an integral role in the operation of the marketing concept. Relationships among channel members are influenced by the structure of the channel.Marketing channels can be described as sets of interdependent organizations involved in the process of making a product or service available for use or consumption. DEMAND STIMULUS In addition to marketing channels satisfying demand by supplying goods and services in the right location, at the correct quantity and price, they should stimulate demand through promotional activities of retailers, manufacturers and wholesalers. In this way, a marketing channel should be 192 Channels of distribution and logistics viewed not just as a demand satisfier, but as an orchestrated network that creates valu e for consumers through the generation of form, possession, time and place utilities.We start by examining ways in which distribution systems are designed and how channel policy is determined, depending on the degree of market exposure sought by a company. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DESIGN The starting point for marketing channel design is the end consumer. Although an understanding of consumer purchasing patterns is essential, there are other factors that influence channel organization: n n n n n There may be a restriction in choice of outlets available to suppliers, e. g. retail outlets may already have been secured by established manufacturers. Channel design will be influenced by the number, size and geographic concentration of consumers.If customers are few in number, but large and geographically concentrated, it may be that direct channels will be suitable. If customers are dispersed, the mechanics of direct channels become increasingly difficult and there will be a need for a large number of intermediaries. Product characteristics affect channel design. Industrial goods manufacturers tend to use direct channels, but there are other factors that influence the decision. Perishable goods, for example, need to be turned over quickly so direct methods are often applied. Non-perishable, non-bulky goods can be handled via indirect channels. Some products are more suited to indirect channels because of environmental characteristics.For example, in some countries shopping is seen very much as being a leisure activity especially for items like clothing and furniture, so much so that companies such as the Swedish company IKEA have made this a central part of their business model. Some organizations have limited discretion over marketing channel choice owing to economic conditions and legal restrictions. In certain of the Eastern European and Baltic countries such as Estonia, Latvia and Uzbekistan there is still restricted choice in terms of the range and scope of retail outlets for marketers. Any channel decision will have long-term implications for the company, e. g. price will be affected depending on the number of levels between the manufacturer and the end user.A decision to change channels is likely be long term so it is important that existing channel structures are constantly reviewed to exploit opportunities. STRATEGIC CHANNEL CHOICES An important consideration when formulating channel policy is the degree of market exposure sought by the company. Choices available include: Channels of distribution and logistics 193 n n n Intensive distribution where products are placed in as many outlets as possible. This is most common when customers purchase goods frequently, e. g. household goods such as detergents or toothpaste. Wide exposure gives customers many opportunities to buy and the image of the outlet is not important.The aim is to achieve maximum coverage. Selective distribution where products are placed in a more limited number of outlets i n defined geographic areas. Instead of widespread exposure, selective distribution seeks to show products in the most promising or profitable outlets, e. g. high-end ‘designer’ clothes. Exclusive distribution where products are placed in one outlet in a specific area. This brings about a stronger partnership between seller and re-seller and results in strong bonds of loyalty. Part of the agreement usually requires the dealer not to carry competing lines, and the result is a more aggressive selling effort by the distributor of the company’s products, e. g. n exclusive franchise to sell a vehicle brand in a specific geographical area, in return for which the franchisee agrees to supply an appropriate after sales service back-up. We can see that there are several key decisions to make when determining the company’s distribution system. Its importance is underlined by the fact that the choice of distribution channel has an effect on all elements of the marketi ng mix and these are long term. TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION OF CHANNELS Marketing channels can be characterized according to the number of channel levels. Each institution that works to bring the product to the point of consumption is included. The number of intermediaries involved in channel operation determines on how many levels it operates.There are four main types of channel level in consumer markets as shown in Figure 6. 1. The first three levels (zero, one and two) are self explanatory. The three level channel includes a ‘jobber’, or merchant Zero level channel manufacturer Consumer One level channel manufacturer Retailer Consumer Two level channel manufacturer Wholesaler Retailer Consumer Three level channel manufacturer FIGURE 6. 1 Wholesaler Jobber Retailer Consumer Channel relationships 194 Channels of distribution and logistics wholesaler who intervenes between the wholesaler and retailer. It is the jobber’s role to buy from wholesalers and sell to small er retailers, who are not usually serviced by larger wholesalers.Within each channel, intermediaries are connected by three types of flow: 1 Physical flow describes movement of goods from raw material that is processed in various stages of manufacture until it reaches the final consumer. In the case of a towel manufacturer raw material is cotton yarn which flows from the grower via transporters to the manufacturer’s warehouses and plants. Title flow is the passage of ownership from one channel institution to another; when manufacturing towels, title to raw materials passes from the supplier to the manufacturer. Ownership of finished towels passes from manufacturer to the wholesaler or retailer and then to the final consumer. Information flow involves the directed flow of influence from activities such as advertising, personal selling, sales promotion and publicity from one member to other members in the system.Manufacturers of towels direct promotion, and information flows to retailers or wholesalers, known as trade promotion. This type of activity may also be directed to end consumers, i. e. ‘end user’ promotion. 2 3 Conventional marketing channels comprise autonomous business units, each performing a defined set of marketing functions. Co-ordination among channel members is through the bargaining process. Membership of the channel is relatively easy, loyalty is low and this type of network tends to be unstable. Members rarely co-operate with each member working independently of others. Decision makers are more concerned with cost and investment relationships at a single stage of the marketing process and tend to be committed to established working practices.Most food grocery products in the European Union are marketed through conventional marketing channels; independent food and grocery producers are responsible for growing, rearing and manufacturing products and brands. These are sold through a series of wholesalers and retailers such as Sainsbury’s, Aldi, Lidl, Tesco or Carrefour each operating as independent businesses in the chain and selling to their own customers. Vertical marketing systems are in contrast to conventional channels where members co-ordinate activities between different levels of the channel to reach a desired target market. The essential feature is that participants acknowledge and desire interdependence, and view it as being in their best longterm interests.For the channel to function as a vertical marketing system, one of the member firms must be acknowledged as the leader; typically the dominant firm, which can be expected to take a significant risk position and usually has the greatest relative power within the channel. An example of a vertical marketing system is that of franchising. The franchiser, usually on the basis of having a powerful brand or perhaps a patent/copyright, for a fee, allows franchisees to produce or distribute the product or service. The franchiser effectively c ontrols the channel, including aspects such as product ingredients, advertising and marketing, pricing, etc. through formal and legally enforceable agreements. Franchising is an example of what are termed contractual vertical marketing systems which we consider again shortly.Corporate vertical marketing is when a company owns two or more traditional levels of the channel. In many economies corporate vertical channels have arisen as a result of a desire for growth on the part of companies through vertical integration. Two types of vertical integration are possible with respect Channels of distribution and logistics 195 to the direction within which the vertical integration moves a company in the supply chain: when a manufacturer buys, say, a retail chain, this is referred to as forward integration with respect to the chain. Backward integration is moving upstream in the supply chain, e. g. when a retailer invests in manufacturing or a manufacturer invests in a raw material source.Alt hough the end result of such movements is a corporate vertical marketing channel, often the stimulus to such movement is less to do with channel economies and efficiencies, and more with control over access to supply or demand, entry into a profitable business or overall scale and operating economies. Much vertical integration activity which took place during the 1990s in many economies resulted in lower overall profitability levels, and in some cases, the demise of companies involved, as companies overextended themselves and/or moved into areas where they had little expertise. Because of this, many companies have now turned their attention towards contractual systems for achieving growth and more control through the vertical marketing system.Many of the large oil companies are examples of corporate vertical marketing. They prospect for oil, extract it, process it, distribute and retail it through their petrol stations. Other companies operate partial corporate vertical marketing sy stems in that they integrate only one way. Zara (the clothing retailer) is integrated vertically backward with manufacturing facilities. Firestone (the tyre manufacturer) on the other hand, is vertically integrated forward owning its own tyre retailers. Many companies formalize their obligations within channel networks by employing legitimate power as a means of control achieved by using contractual agreements.Nearly all transactions between businesses are covered by some form of contract, and as such the contractual agreement determines the marketing roles of each party within the contract. Indeed, the locus of authority usually lies with individual members. The most common form of contractual agreement are franchises and voluntary and co-operative groups. Franchises are where the parent company grants an individual person or relatively small company the right or privilege to do business in a prescribed manner over a certain time period in a specified place. The parent company is r eferred to as the franchiser (or franchisor) and may occupy any position in the channel network. The franchise retailer is termed the franchisee.There are four basic types of franchise system: n n n n Manufacturer/retailer franchise, e. g. service stations where most of the garage petrol stations such as Shell and Esso are franchisees of the large oil exploration and refining companies. Manufacturer/wholesaler franchise: e. g. Coca-Cola sell drinks they manufacture to franchised wholesalers, who in turn bottle and distribute soft drinks to retailers. This type of arrangement is common in the food and drinks markets with many of the large companies franchising part of their manufacturing and or wholesaling activities to others. The wholesaler/retailer franchise. Many retail chains are franchisees of large wholesalers.These wholesalers saw the value of securing a measure of control, and of course a share of the retail profits, from marketing their products and brands. The most notable example is ‘Spar’ which advertises itself as ‘Spar, your 8. 00 till late shop’, and of course all retail members must abide by this promise. The service/sponsor retailer franchise e. g. McDonald’s, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Subway, Car Rental companies like Avis and Hertz and services like DynoRod and Prontaprint. This is the best known and certainly most ubiquitous of franchising arrangements and it has enabled many organizations to rapidly expand their global operations. 196 Channels of distribution and logistics There are different types of franchise arrangement, e. g.McDonald’s insists that franchisees purchase from official suppliers; they provide building and design specifications, help locate finance for franchisees and impose quality standards to which each unit must adhere in order to hold its franchise. Rigorous inspection through ‘secret shoppers’ (explained in Chapter 12) ensures franchise ‘rules’ are being obeyed. Franchises share a set of common features and operating procedures: 1 2 3 4 A franchise essentially sells a nationally, or internationally, recognized trade name, process, or business format to the franchisee. The franchiser normally offers expert advice e. g. location selection, capitalization, operation and marketing. Most franchises operate a central purchasing system at national or international level to enable cost savings to be made at the individual franchise level.The franchise is subject to a contract binding both parties that normally requires the franchisee to pay a franchise fee and royalty fees to the franchiser, but the franchisee owns the business as opposed to being employed. The franchiser often provides initial and continuous training to the franchisee. 5 Contractual vertical marketing systems like franchising have been one of the fastest growing areas of marketing and distribution. Substantial advantages derive from the franchising system. From a system t hat essentially involves two independent parties voluntarily agreeing to contract with each other, advantages accrue to both the franchisee and franchiser. Advantages to the franchisee are: n n n n n n The franchisee gains the benefit of being able to sell a well-known product or service which has been market tested and known to work.The franchisee enjoys access to the knowledge, experience, reputation and image of the franchiser. Because of this the franchisee is able to enter a business much more easily than setting up from scratch. The learning curve is shortened, expensive mistakes can be avoided, and there is less chance of business failure. Although the franchisee has the backing of what is often the large organization of the franchiser, the franchisee is still essentially an independent business with all that this implies for motivation to succeed. The franchisee is often helped by national or international advertising and promotion by the franchiser which would be beyond the means of a small independent business.The franchisee enjoys the use of the franchiser’s trademark, continuous research and development and market information. The franchiser will normally provide a system of management controls such as accountancy, sales and stock control procedures. Advantages to the franchiser are: n Finding and recruiting a network of franchisees enables rapid growth as wider distribution can be achieved with less capital. Channels of distribution and logistics 197 n n n n The individual franchisee is more motivated than a hired manager might be. The franchiser secures captive outlets for products or services, especially in the case of trade name franchising and private labels. Franchise and royalty fees provide a regular stream of income for the franchiser.The terms of the franchise contract normally give the franchiser substantial control over how the franchise is operated and normally the franchiser can terminate a contract should the relationship turn out to be unsatisfactory. The costs of such terminations are likely to be less than if the franchiser was operating a corporate owned facility with staff on the payroll. Normally, terms and restrictions on location and sale of the business by the franchisee ensure that the franchiser is able to maintain territorial exclusivity for its franchisees. There are disadvantages, but the franchise relationship combines the strengths of both small and large scale businesses. The franchisee is the small business person who is able to respond to local market conditions and offer personal services to customers.The franchiser passes on economies of scale in national advertising and bulk purchasing. For a franchise to be successful both parties need to work towards a common goal and avoid conflicts which requires frequent and open communication between partners if the system is to meet changing market conditions while maintaining its integrity. What constitutes the main disadvantages of franchis ing depends from whose perspective we are looking; the franchisee or the franchiser. The main disadvantages of franchising from each perspective are: Disadvantages to franchiser: n The franchiser loses some control over the provision and marketing of the brand. Poor service on the part of the franchisee can result in problems for brand image. Ideas and techniques can be copied even if seemingly well protected by patents and copyright arrangements. n Some proportion of profit has to be foregone. n There may be less commitment and enthusiasm from the franchisee. n Often franchisees lack business skills or experience. Disadvantages to the franchisee: n lack of support from franchiser; n franchiser may go out of business; n lack of flexibility/scope to use initiative; n close control from franchiser. Franchising is not solely confined to consumer products like fast food. It is used for a wide range of products and services in both consumer and industrial markets. Voluntary and co-operat ive groups emerged in the 1930s as a response to competition from chain stores.The scope of co-operative effort has expanded from concentrated buying power to the development of programmes involving centralized consumer advertising and promotion, store location and layout, financing, accounting and a package of support services. 198 Channels of distribution and logistics Generally, wholesale sponsored voluntary groups have been more effective competitors than retail sponsored co-operative groups. Primarily this is because of the difference in channel organization between the two. In the former, a wholesaler can provide strong leadership, because it represents the locus of power within the voluntary system and this is normally supported by a brand name like ‘Spar’.In the latter, power is diffused throughout the retail membership and role specification and allocation of resources are more difficult to accomplish. The principal purpose here is in bulk purchasing. In volunt ary groups, retail members have relinquished some of their autonomy by making themselves highly dependent on specific wholesalers for expertise. In retail co-operative chains, individuals retain more autonomy and this tends to depend much less strongly on the supply unit for assistance and direction. This type of organization is not to be confused with the Co-operative movement that was founded in 1844 by the Rochdale, Lancashire, Society of Equitable Pioneers who were a group of 28 weavers and other workers.As mechanization of the Industrial Revolution pushed more and more skilled workers into poverty, tradesmen banded together to open their own store selling items they could not otherwise afford. Over four months they pooled together ? 28 of capital. They opened their store with a basic selection of dry goods and foodstuffs and quickly moved into higher quality unadulterated produce. They devised the internationally famous Rochdale Principles: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 open membership; democr atic control (one person, one vote); distribution of surplus in proportion to trade; payment of limited interest on capital; political and religious neutrality; cash trading (no credit); promotion of education.Administered vertical marketing systems (VMS) do not have the formal arrangements of a contractual system or the clarity of power dependence of a corporate system. It is a co-ordinated system of distribution channel organization in which the flow of products from the producer to the end user is controlled by the power and size of one member of the channel system rather than by common ownership or contractual ties. Member organizations acknowledge the existence of dependence and adhere to the leadership of the dominant firm, which may operate at any level in the channel. Large retail organizations like Marks & Spencer typify this system. In administered systems like Marks & Spencer, units can exist with disparate goals, but there is informal collaboration on inclusive goals.Dec ision making occurs by virtue of interaction between channel members in the absence of a formal inclusive structure. However, the locus of authority still remains with individual channel members. As in conventional channels commitment is selforiented and there is a minimum amount of system-wide orientation among the members. As McCammon1 observes: Manufacturing organizations . . . have historically relied on administrative expertise to coordinate reseller marketing efforts. Suppliers with dominant brands have predictably experienced the least difficulty in securing strong trade support, but many manufacturers with Channels of distribution and logistics 199 fringe’ items have been able to elicit reseller co-operation through the use of liberal distribution policies that take the form of attractive discounts, financial assistance, and various types of concessions that protect resellers from one or more of the risks of doing business. An example of a successful administered VMS in is that of the furniture/lifestyle retailer, IKEA who has developed close working relationships with its suppliers. Acting as the channel co-ordinator, IKEA is committed to cost-effective supply and their suppliers benefit from the channel leadership of an effective and marketing-oriented retailer. Administered VMS are one step removed from conventional marketing channels. In an administered system, co-ordination of marketing activities is achieved by the use of programmes developed by one or a limited number of firms.Successful administered systems are conventional channels in which the principles of effective inter-organizational management have been correctly applied. Before we discuss how such marketing channels are co-ordinated, it is important that we discuss their structure. STRUCTURE OF MARKETING CHANNELS The marketing channel has two basic aspects: 1 2 the placement of intermediary types of channel in relation to each other i. e. the order in which they occur; the number of different intermediary levels or stages in the channel i. e. how many different separate types of intermediary are involved, so types of intermediary and number of levels determine the structure of a marketing channel. There are several types of channel structure, dependent on the type of goods.An example of a structure for consumer goods such as food and clothing is shown in Figure 6. 2. This figure is based on three assumptions: 1 2 3 The channel consists of complete organizations. Manufacturers’ agents and selling agents are included with the merchants even though they do not take title to the goods. Physical movement follows exactly the movement of ownership. We must understand the underlying reasons for the emergence of channel structures. Four logical steps can be identified: 1 2 3 4 The efficiency of the process can be increased via an intermediary. Channel intermediaries arise to adjust the discrepancy of assortments through the performance of the sorting processe s.Marketing agencies remain together in channel arrangements to provide the routine of transactions. Channels exist to facilitate deliveries and to avoid inventory stock-outs. 200 Channels of distribution and logistics 1 M 2 M 3 M 4 M 5 M 6 M 7 M 8 M 9 M C W R A R W W A C W W C R W W W C C C R C R C R C R C M = Manufacturer W = Wholesaler A = Agent (sells for manufacturers) R = Retailer C = Consumer FIGURE 6. 2 A typical example of structure for consumer goods Rationale for intermediaries As numbers of transactions increase, the need for intermediaries becomes greater. The marketing channel is a ‘canal’ which contains the physical flow of products.Because of the complex array of intermediaries operating within a channel, which may be involved in one or all aspects of channel function, the channel may also be visualized as a chain-link arrangement where each intermediary unit is effectively a link. Manufacturers are dependent on the effectiveness of their intermediaries if their channels of distribution are to meet their marketing goals. Intermediaries of a channel specialize in more than one function. Their inclusion primarily depends on their superior efficiency in the performance of basic marketing tasks. Such intermediaries, through their experience, specialization, contacts and scale of operation, offer other channel members more than they can achieve on their own. However, this type of specialization leads to some important behavioural concepts. Position and role Each channel member chooses a position or location in the channel. Role’ refers to the functions and degree of performance expected of the firm filling a position. Channel intermediaries perform the distribution function at a lower unit cost than the manufacturer who is the intermediary most distanced from the consumer, and they balance the production efficiencies of the supplier to the purchasing needs of the customer. Another reason is to break down large volumes into smalle r quantities, termed ‘breaking bulk’, e. g. a furniture retailer places an order for 100 tables, but the individual buys only one. When we consider the selling process, the number of intermediaries can reduce the number of transactions Channels of distribution and logistics 201 ontained within the selling process. See Figure 6. 3. Figure 6. 3 shows that there are four manufacturers and ten retailers who buy goods from each manufacturer. Here the number of contact lines amounts to 40 (i. e. 4 10). If all four manufacturers sell to 10 retailers through one intermediary, the number of contacts is reduced to 14 (i. e. 4 10). The number of contacts increases as the number of intermediaries increases, e. g. when the number of wholesalers is increased to 2, contacts will increase from 14 to 28 (i. e. [4 2] [10 2]). Thus, greater numbers of intermediaries result in diminishing returns per contact. (a) Selling directly ManufacturersRetailers 40 contact lines (b) Selling through one wholesaler Manufacturers Wholesaler Retailers 14 contact lines (c) Selling through two wholesalers Manufacturers Wholesalers Retailers 28 contact lines FIGURE 6. 3 The economics of intermediary systems 202 Channels of distribution and logistics Assortment and sorting In addition to increasing the efficiency of transactions, intermediaries smooth the flow of goods and services by creating what economists refer to as ‘possession’, ‘place’ and ‘time’ utilities. This smoothing requires that intermediaries perform a sorting function to overcome the discrepancy that arises between goods produced by manufacturers and goods demanded by the consumer.In addition, intermediaries bring together a range of similar or related items into a large stock, thus facilitating the buying process. A supermarket will buy in thousands of lines to provide shoppers with choice, and a builders’ merchant will provide everything from sand and gravel to light fitt ings that the builder can use. In this way, intermediaries play an important role in facilitating the flow of products from the manufacturer to the consumer. Routine transactions The cost of distribution can be minimized if transactions are routinized. In effect, through routinization, a sequence of marketing agencies is able to hang together in a channel arrangement or structure.A good example is automatic ordering, whereby the cost of placing orders is reduced when retail inventory levels reach the necessary re-order point. Searching Buyers and sellers are often engaged in similar activities within the marketplace. There is a degree of uncertainty if manufacturers are unsure of customer wants and needs, and consumers are not always sure what they will find. In this respect, marketing channels facilitate the searching process in two ways: 1 2 Wholesale and retail institutions are organized by different product groups; for example, fashion, hardware, grocery. Many products are widel y available from wide ranging locations. FLOWS IN MARKETING CHANNELSWhen we discuss marketing flows, there will be times when the word ‘function’ could be used, but here we refer to marketing ‘flows’ in channels as a better method of describing movement. In this way, we can show that various intermediaries that make up a marketing channel are connected by several distinguishable types of flow, summarized in Figure 6. 4, which depicts eight universal flows. The figure shows that physical possession, ownership and promotion are typically forward flows from producer to consumer. Each of these moves is ‘down’ the channel; a manufacturer promotes the product to a wholesaler, who in turn promotes it to a retailer, and so on. Negotiation, financing and risking flows move in both directions, whereas ordering and payment are backward flows.Financing is the most important of these flows; at any one time, when stocks are being held by one member of the ch annel, financing is in operation. When a wholesaler takes ownership and physical Channels of distribution and logistics 203 Physical possession Ownership Promotion Producers Retailers Negotiation Financing Rising Ordering Payment Wholesalers Customers: household and industrial FIGURE 6. 4 Marketing flows in channels Woolly Thinking Under the auspices of the Confederation of British Wool Textiles (CBWT), groups of British wool textile manufacturers exchange information and ideas. The Confederation is organized into distinct groups in the industry with each group representing a particular stage in the manufacturing and processing of wool.For example, there is a group representing ‘Raw Fibre Producers’, another representing ‘Spinners’, another representing ‘Fabric Manufacturers’ and one representing the interests of ‘Dyers and Finishers’. possession of a portion of the output of a manufacturer, the wholesaler is essentially financing the manufacturer. This notion is apparent if the costs of stock are considered. Stock held in stores as dormant stock is ‘dead money’, but if this is freed via a wholesaler, this ‘dead money’ is available for reinvestment. The furniture industry exemplifies the flow. Traditional furniture retailers operating on a sold-order basis do not participate in the backward financing flow.However, ‘warehouse type’ furniture retailers participate in this flow directly, and receive benefits from manufacturers in the form of lower prices and preferential treatment. This backward flow of financing is not solely associated with stockholding, another example being prepayment for merchandise. The problem is that in the event of any downturn in sales the warehouse type retailer with large sums of money tied up in stock is very vulnerable to cash flow and liquidity problems. To underline this, blaming the downturn in the UK housing market in July 2009, the UKâ₠¬â„¢s second largest carpet retailer, Allied Carpets, called in the receiver. 204Channels of distribution and logistics Forward flow of financing is more common. All terms of sale, with the exception of cash on delivery and prepayment, may be viewed as elements of the forward flow of financing. In addition to these flows there is information flow. Typically, information regarding product attributes is passed ‘down’ the channel, often with the dominant channel member having greater influence on this function. Marketing information is passed ‘back’ up the channels. In addition, information flows horizontally, i. e. with intermediaries operating at the same level, such as fibre manufacturers, communicating for mutual benefit.CHANNEL CO-ORDINATION However well designed a marketing channel may be it is important that it is organized and coordinated, otherwise activities and flows will not operate effectively, and the full potential of the system will not be real ized. Emphasis should be placed on understanding behavioural dimensions of inter-organizational relationships, because through such understanding, the manager can organize, manipulate and exploit available resources. The long-term objective of channel management is to achieve, at a reasonable cost, the greatest possible impact at the end user level, so that individual members of the channel can obtain satisfactory returns (e. g. rofits, market share) as compensation for their specific contributions. The behaviour of intermediaries within any given structural arrangement should thus be directed towards achieving high yield performance. Once the marketing management of an organization isolates the market targets to attack, and the products and services which it must supply in order to satisfy needs and wants in those various segments, the question of how best to make products and services available for consumption arises. Figure 6. 5 identifies four major steps that represent the co-o rdination process. The first step is to determine the level of service outputs demanded by end users of the commercial channel system.Service outputs that are among the most significant in distribution are, for example, lot size. Some companies insist on a minimum order level. Under this limit they will not accept the order. In contrast, often smaller companies are unable or unwilling to supply orders over a certain size. A second type of service output is delivery or waiting time, or how long it takes from order to delivery. A third service output relates to market decentralization or spatial convenience, namely, to where the provider will deliver. For example, some suppliers will only deliver locally whereas at the other extreme some will undertake to deliver anywhere in the world. Finally, there is breadth and depth of product or service assortment.This refers to whether or not the provider is able to supply a full range of products and services or only a selected range, i. e. a ‘one -stop shopping’ facility. The second step involves identifying the marketing tasks that need to be carried out in order to achieve the service outputs, and which channel members have the capability to perform the tasks. Management must then determine whether, through the use of channel control strategies, they will be able to control the behaviour of existing channel members or be compelled to integrate channel flow vertically so the required service outputs are provided to end users. Channels of distribution and logistics 205 Step 1 Determine service output levels required by customersStep 2 Analyse the roles which channel members must perform to assure delivery of the required service outputs Step 3 Use economic and other power bases to motivate channel members to carry out their assigned roles Step 4 Devise mechanisms for dealing with conflicts that occur within the channel FIGURE 6. 5 Stages in the channel co-ordination process For example, if a desired level o f service output is that orders must be fulfilled within five working days then the channel and logistics system must be designed to reach this service level. If intermediaries in the channel are unwilling or unable to meet this service output then alternative channel arrangements must be found.Without effective channel management and control there is no guarantee that the desired service outcomes will be achieved, so a major issue in channel management relates to where, and to what extent, marketing flow participation should be assumed to generate the desired service outputs; e. g. if a car buyer needs finance, the manufacturer, the retailer or an outside intermediary should provide it, but lending services must be readily available if the consumer is going to feel comfortable in considering a specific purchase that requires finance. In a situation where no channel intermediary is willing to accept the risk of financing, the initial supplier may have to assume this, i. e. it would prefer to specialize in those flows that it can perform at a comparative advantage.The third step in the co-ordinative process is to determine which strategies should be used to achieve the desired results, irrespective of whether management decides to invest in integrating functions or whether it deals with independent companies. Essentially this is an issue of where and how ‘power’ is applied in the channel. Power is the ability to get somebody to do a task. In the context of a marketing channel it can be defined in terms of how one channel member can exert influence on another channel member. For example, due to their size and purchasing power, many retail multiples in the UK like Marks & Spencer are able to exercise substantial power over their suppliers.Power is the mechanism by which congruent and effective roles become specified, roles become realigned when necessary, and appropriate role performance is enforced. There are several bases of power, which include re ward, coercion and expertise. 206 Channels of distribution and logistics The fourth step involves setting up mechanisms to deal with conflict issues that may arise so that the channel will continue to provide the desired service outputs even if channel members disagree. Very often channel members perform unique roles. Thus, manufacturers specialize in production and national promotions, while retailers specialize in merchandising, distribution and promotion at a local level. This specialization means that channel members become reliant on each other to achieve objectives.There has to be co-operation between channel members, as without it, the task will not be completed. Such co-operation does not always come easy and needs to be cultivated. CHANNEL CONFLICT There is a danger that there will be conflicts of interest and distribution channels will exhibit levels of conflict. For example, suppliers may want to deliver weekly to a retailer, but the retailer wants to hold less stock, so may want daily deliveries. Ideally, channel members should attempt to coordinate their objectives, plans and activities with other intermediaries such that performance of the total distribution system to which they belong is enhanced.Evidence supports the view that such integrated activity throughout the length of the marketing channel is rare and channel participants are not too concerned with transactions that occur between each of the various channel links. Channel intermediaries are more concerned about dealings between channel members immediately adjacent to themselves, from whom they buy, and to whom they sell. Channel intermediaries do not function as component members of a distribution system, but operate independently, making decisions concerning their own methods of operation, functions performed and clients served as well as deciding their own objectives, policies and programmes.Therefore, a marketing channel should be a set of interlocking and mutually dependent elements and it is in the interests of all channel members for there to be a substantial degree of co-operation, but an almost inevitable feature is potential conflict between members which should be taken into account when making channel arrangements. It is possible that healthy competition can lead to conflict and management should seek ways to reduce this conflict. Conflict in distribution channels can occur in different forms as follows: 1 2 Horizontal conflict – is related to competition among similar types of intermediaries at the same level in the channel – e. g. two household textile stores in competition with each another.Intertype conflict – refers to competition among different types of intermediaries at the same level in the channel. This kind of competition has intensified since the advent of ‘scrambled merchandising’ by retailers (where retailers add new product lines that are unrelated to their normal lines of business) e. g. supermarkets hav e added homewares and clothing to their product lines, offering consumers a wider product range and attaining higher margins. Intertype conflict is significant as it reflects a way in which industries remain efficient and respond to changing market conditions. Vertical conflict – refers to competition among different levels in a channel.Such problems can be damaging to existing co-operative relationships e. g. in recent years some of the major car producers have been in conflict with their distributors over matters like pricing and discount policies, stockholding levels and exclusivity agreements. 3 Channels of distribution and logistics 207 Stress and conflict can be in a dormant state; times of change cause existing stress to peak, leading to hostility among channel members. Some conflict is inevitable in channels and may even be positive in that it can prompt needed changes. The earlier example regarding retailers selling manufacturers’ brands at lower prices than m anufacturers wish is an example of vertical conflict.Selling of brands like Levis and Calvin Klein at prices lower than those recommended by manufacturers has given rise to vertical conflict in the channel. Other examples of this type of conflict in the UK recently have been the selling of discounted books and discounted pharmaceutical products by the large retail supermarket groups. Goal incompatibility Channel members appear to share a common goal – maximizing the efficiency and effectiveness of the total system. However, each firm exists as a separate legal entity, each with its own employees, owners and other interested parties who help shape its goals and strategies. Some firms’ goals may be incompatible with the aims and objectives of other channel members.This incompatibility can be a primary cause of stress which will ultimately result in conflict. The distribution of channel profits is a typical example. Each institution will desire the highest possible profit for the whole channel and the natural tendency will be towards co-operation to achieve maximum profit levels. However, each individual firm can be expected to desire the largest obtainable share of total channel profits. The predictable result is conflict over the allocation process. Even if goals are compatible, there may be disagreements about methods employed: all channel members may agree that increases in volume of a product are desirable, but may disagree on the means employed to accomplish it.Wholesalers may desire more shelf space for better positioning of products in retail stores; retailers may feel that more advertising and promotional effort by the manufacturer would accomplish the objective of an increase in sales. The result is conflict over which method to use. Position, role and domain incongruence In a channel consisting of a manufacturer using only wholesalers who sell to retailers, there will be a realignment of the roles and domains of each party. By serving lar ge retailers direct, positions will be re-specified. Changes in position specification, or poorly defined positions, can precipitate conflict among channel members, so the manufacturer must anticipate and understand the expected behaviour of such members. In situations where consensus does not exist, conflict can be expected.Because each role represents a code of conduct defining the channel member’s expected contribution, adequate performance is critical to maintaining harmony within the channel system. Inadequate performance, or failure to behave in the prescribed manner, frustrates attempts by one firm to predict what the other will do and such frustration is a major cause of channel conflict. Conflict may also arise when there is lack of agreement concerning who is the channel leader (termed the ‘channel captain’). If channel members disagree on the domain of firms in the system, there will be conflict and an inability to achieve goals. If domains overlap, an d two or more firms lay claim to the same functions, products or customers, disagreement might lead to hostility.The conflict between car producers and their distributors just described, in part stems from the issue of 208 Channels of distribution and logistics who controls the channel. In the past it has been the car companies who have been channel captains but market and legislative changes have shifted the balance more towards distributors, giving rise to conflict. Communication breakdown Communication breakdowns may cause conflict in two ways: 1 The failure of one firm to pass on vital information to other channel members. A manufacturer wishing to maintain a competitive advantage may decide not to announce a new product until a national distribution programme has been developed.Retailers, on the other hand, need information about new products as soon as possible to prepare their own strategy for the introductory period. Distortion within the message process is called ‘noi se’ that often arises from confused language nuances. When channel members attach different meanings to language and terminology (e. g. if their roles are unclear and confused) stress results and there is potential for conflict. Speculation surrounding the health of Apple boss Steve Jobs caused problems for the company and its distributors. In January 2009 the annual MacWorld conference normally used to announce new products and developments was cancelled.This caused speculation in the trade about whether or not Jobs would continue. The problem was not so much Jobs’ illness bur rather the rumours about it. In July 2009 it was announced that Jobs was making a good recovery from a liver transplant. 2 Communication breakdowns are common in specialist business areas. Noise arises when functional specialists develop terminology that means little to those outside that business environment. Unclear communication with non-specialists can play a part in developing conflict so t he specialist should ensure that communications have been understood. Differing perceptions of reality Different solutions to mutual problems can lead to confliction behaviour.Even when channel members have a strong desire to co-operate and goal agreement exists, conflict can occur when perceptions of the real facts differ. Bare Bellies Update Dear all, further to my e-mail yesterday, I’ve had clarification that a new system for producing bare belly information will be in place. Please note there will no longer be blank bare belly sheets available in departments. Confused? So was this organization’s staff who received this e-mail. The e-mail was from the organization’s publicity department and was sent to all staff. ‘Bare bellies’ is a term used by printers to denote blank sheets to be printed on. The e-mail related to the production of company promotional material. Channels of distribution and logistics 209Each channel member brings to the relation ship different backgrounds and prejudices; facts are likely to be interpreted according to prior experience. All members may agree that the channel is not functioning as effectively as desired; each channel member may perceive a different reason for this lack of effectiveness. Manufacturers may feel that a retailer’s lack of stock is due to failure to maintain adequate safety stock levels and realistic reorder points. The retailer may feel that inventory policies are realistic and that the problem is caused by the manufacturer’s inability to meet scheduled delivery times. Each party is interpreting the situation based upon experience and natural prejudices associated with its own position and role. Ideological differencesSometimes there may be a fundamental ideological conflict in channels which stems from big business and small business perceptions of management, particularly concerning the appropriate level of sales effort. For example, a manufacturer may be so satis fied with the performance of a wholesaler in a given territory that pressure is exerted on the wholesaler to expand the line of products on offer, whereas the wholesaler may be satisfied with allowing the business to continue to run in its present form. In this way, pressures exerted by the manufacturer will lead to stress and conflict in the relationship. If this is an established channel, it is in the interests of everybody to settle the dispute or misunderstanding quickly.There are several methods of resolving conflict, and it is a task of management to seek ways in which to manage it to avoid it becoming dysfunctional and to harness the energies in conflict situations to produce solutions. Depending on which underlying cause is identified, different strategies can be employed in isolation. Another important factor in the resolution of the conflict will be the weight of power of the channel member seeking to resolve the conflict. Problem solving Adopting superordinate goals is a method that refers to goals that are desired by all members caught up in the conflict. Often such goals cannot be achieved by individual channel members, as concerted efforts of all parties are required.Such disputes become more pronounced when the channel is confronted by an external threat, and conflict only dissipates when alternative channel systems emerge. The threat to existing channel members of new channel arrangements for car retailing in the UK has brought about a reduction in conflict between traditional channel members. Car manufacturers and dealers were challenged by the fact that consumers were increasingly purchasing new cars through a variety of new channels including sourcing them from countries where prices might be lower, the growth of ‘car hypermarkets’ where cars are sourced on the ‘grey market’ and through the Internet.The result has been for existing traditional channel members to adopt superordinate goals and this has resulted in a r eduction of conflict between them in an effort to survive. Permanent conflict resolution requires an integration of the needs of both sides to the dispute so they find a common goal without sacrificing their basic economic and ethical principles. The problem is developing a common goal on which all parties agree. 210 Channels of distribution and logistics A solution exists to alleviate communications noise in distribution channels. A more efficient flow of information and communications in channels permits members to find solutions to their conflict based on common objectives. Channel communication efforts should be designed to decrease or avoid conflict, e. g. sing sales representatives to convey information from wholesalers or retailers implies that the manufacturer is trying to encourage the attainment of both individual and common goals; the function of the sales representative in such cases is that of ‘problem solver’. Persuasion This implies that institutions invo lved draw on their leadership potential. If effective channel management is to be achieved, it is often the case that there will be a need to locate an institution or an agency within the system that is willing to assume this role. Channel leadership is the intentional use of power to affect the behaviour of other channel members and cause them to act in a manner that contributes to the maintenance or achievement of a desired level of performance.Often channel control results from channel leadership and like channel power, the level of control achieved by one firm over others in a channel may be issue specific, e. g. while the manufacturer may have control over pricing, retailers may have control over stock levels. Whether or not control can be exerted depends on the power base of each channel member. By its nature, persuasion involves communication between conflicting parties. Emphasis is on influencing behaviour to resolve conflict; the primary intention is to avoid or reduce conf lict concerned with domain or sphere of influence. Persuasion allows members to reach a consensus resulting in agreement without formal bargaining. Some years ago a well-known company launched its own brand of cola. The new brand was eagerly tocked by many leading grocery supermarkets who were persuaded to make space for the new brand on their shelves. Inevitably this meant less shelf space for existing brands including some of the best known cola brands in the world. As if this loss of shelf space was not bad enough, the world’s leading cola brand claimed bitterly that at first glace the new Virgin cola looked remarkably like their own cola brand. They subsequently asked Virgin to withdraw the new brand in its present form and at the same time asked their supermarket customers not to stock it. Needless to say, there were protracted discussions, but after a little time all parties were persuaded to come to a compromise which avoided costly litigation and loss of face.The new cola was altered slightly in appearance, some of the lost shelf space was restored and the new brand gradually made inroads into the market. Bargaining/negotiations The difference between bargaining and persuasion is that in the bargaining process stress continues to exist in the system long after agreement is reached. In negotiation, no attempt is made to fully satisfy a channel member. Instead, the objective is to reach an ‘accommodation’ to stop conflict among members. Such a compromise may resolve the episode, but not necessarily the fundamental stress over which the conflict erupted. If stress continues, it is likely that some issue will cause conflict again at some later date. Compromise is a means by which bargains can be reached in the channel.Each party gives up something it desires to prevent or end conflict. Often compromise is necessary to reach domain consensus where persuasion and negotiation draw on abilities of parties involved to communicate. Channels o f distribution and logistics 211 Politics Politics refers to resolution of conflict involving new organizations in the agreement-reaching process. Mediation involves a third party, usually to secure settlement of a dispute by persuading the parties to continue negotiation or consider recommendations made by the mediator. Mediation involves understanding the conflicting views of parties in such a way that opportunities are perceived that otherwise may have been missed.The fact that solutions are being offered by a mediator, i. e. somebody external to the dispute, can often lead to a settlement if both parties deem the solutions acceptable. Effective mediation keeps the parties together and clarifies facts so the communication process does not break down. While mediation offers solutions to disputes, channel members are not obliged to accept the solutions. In arbitration, however, the solution suggested by the third party is binding upon the conflicting parties. Arbitration can be com pulsory or voluntary, and when it is the former, parties are required by law to submit their dispute to the third party and be bound by the decision.Voluntary arbitration is a similar process whereby parties are bound by the decision, but the dispute is settled voluntarily. The question of relying on law enforcement to settle disputes in distribution is imprecise as it is doubtful whether solutions enforced by law can be applicable to future channel disputes in different circumstances. In purely domestic channel management, these mechanisms are not greatly used because of the inability to find a neutral third party whose decision will be accepted by everybody involved in the dispute. However, arbitration is a normal and accepted part of international channel management and is part of the contractual agreement between the parties in channel activities.For example, if an exporter feels that an overseas agent has not fulfilled the terms of an agreement between him or herself and the pr incipal, but the two parties cannot agree as to the remedies for this, then normally the terms and conditions for instituting an arbitration process are written into the original contract and will be instituted to resolve the problem. Diplomacy Channel diplomacy is the normal method by which inter-organizational relations are conducted, adjusted and managed by ‘ambassadors’, envoys or other persons operating at the boundaries of member organizations. Normally channel members rely on diplomatic procedures, especially in nonintegrated systems. Channel diplomats should be the ‘eyes and ears’ of the firms they work for, and should report anything that may be of interest. Such ‘diplomats’ are commonplace in distribution channels at executive level.In this way, the diplomat’s power base is such that it is obvious to the parties with whom the diplomat will interact. Effective channel management strategies provide for more rational decision maki ng within the channel. THE DYNAMIC NATURE OF CHANNELS Marketing is characterized by constant change, and there is a need for the marketer to adapt to these changes, making marketing channels subject to change and innovation. Channels represent a 212 Channels of distribution and logistics dynamic area of marketing as they are constantly evolving to meet changing customer and market needs which reflect underpinning wider changes and trends in demography and lifestyles. Marketers must be aware of the changing nature of channels and respond to them.An example of recent developments that are indicative of the innovation and changing nature of this area is the growth of multi-channel systems of direct marketing and Internet marketing which are dealt with in Chapter 10. The growth of multi-channels Companies now use a variety of channel arrangements to reach their target customers. Once, companies tended to use only one type of channel configuration in their marketing; now they use several . The use of multi-channel systems can be for a number of reasons: n n n to increase market coverage by reaching new customers; to reduce costs of selling to certain customers where for example such customers require less service than that provided through the company’s normal channels; to achieve a more customized service to particular customers than would be available through the company’s normal channels.In multi-channel marketing, a company might sell to one group of customers using telephone selling and no intermediaries, while another target group may be marketed to through a network of dealers, since these customers require after-sales service and technical advice. Although there are advantages to be gained through using several different channel configurations to different target customers, multi-channels can give rise to increased costs if not controlled. They can also give rise to problems of conflict between different channel members where several channels a re used, particularly where one type of channel member feels that their contractual rights are being infringed. An example is where the marketer uses a system of ‘appointed’ distributors for the company’s products.In return for being granted ‘exclusive’ distribution rights in a particular g